Spanish Literature of the Civil War and the Franco Dictatorship

Historical and Literary Context of the Spanish Civil War and Dictatorship

Spanish literature has undergone a significant evolution across various movements, including Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, and the Generational movements such as the Generation of $'98$, the Generation of $'14$, and the Generation of $'27$. This progression was deeply impacted by Modernism and various Avant-garde movements until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, which spanned from $1936$ to $1939$. During this conflict, the country was split between the Republicans and the Nationals. Literature during the war was primarily characterized by intense censorship and the active persecution of authors. This period culminated in the establishment of the Franco Dictatorship, which lasted from $1939$ to $1975$.

The Division of Literature Under the Franco Regime

Following the Civil War, Spanish literature diverged into two distinct paths: Rooted Literature (Literatura Arraigada) and Uprooted Literature (Literatura Desarraigada). The broader context of this era included widespread poverty, strict censorship, and international isolation. Rooted Literature was generally aligned with the Regime, maintaining an optimistic tone and focusing on themes such as love, the fatherland (patria), and religion. In contrast, Uprooted Literature was opposed to the Regime, characterized by a pessimistic outlook and themes of social denunciation and vindication. For many authors of the Uprooted movement, the consequences of their opposition included exile, legal condemnation, or death, as seen in the cases of Antonio Machado, Rafael Alberti, Federico García Lorca, and Miguel Hernández.

Literatura Arraigada: Rooted Literature of the Dictatorship

Rooted Literature was widely disseminated through media aligned with the Francoist state, such as the magazine Garcilaso. In terms of lyrics and poetry, this movement emphasized the exaltation of traditional values and featured a strong religious component. Its vision of the future was resolutely optimistic, utilizing a classical language and drawing influence from established, consecrated authors. The poetry often focused on love and religious themes, utilizing traditional forms such as the sonnet. Key figures in this movement included Leopoldo Panero and Dionisio Ridruejo.

In the realm of theater, the primary objective was to provide entertainment for the public. This was achieved through the creation of situations that were often absurd or humorous. Significant playwrights of this era included Miguel Mihura, known for works such as Ninette y un señor de Murcia, and Enrique Jardiel Poncela, known for Marcha atrás.

Narrative works within Rooted Literature followed the ideological framework of the Francoist regime. These were traditional novels featuring simple stories with explicit morality, aimed at the diffusion of institutional values. The characters were often designed to be exemplary models of Christian and Franquista ideals, and the stories typically featured happy endings. A prominent example of this genre is the work Marcelino Pan y Vino.

The Evolution of Uprooted Literature: The $1940$s to $1970$s

Uprooted Literature progressed through three distinct chronological stages. The years between $1940$ and $1950$ were defined by Existential Literature. This was followed by the decade of $1950$ to $1960$, which focused on Social Literature. Finally, the period from $1960$ to $1970$ saw the rise of Experimental Literature.

During the Existential phase ($1940$-$1950$), narrative works reflected the atmosphere of post-war misery. Characters were typically disillusioned and devoid of hope, with a focus on the lower and popular social classes. A specific sub-genre known as "Tremendismo" emerged, highlighting morbid and violent aspects of reality. Landmark works include Nada by Carmen Laforet and La familia de Pascual Duarte by Camilo José Cela. Existential poetry of this time reflected injustice, misery, and the lingering hatred between the opposing sides of the war, often reflecting on whether life was worth living. Poets in exile expressed deep nostalgia for their lost homeland. Notable works include Hijos de la ira by Dámaso Alonso and Español del éxodo y del llanto by León Felipe. During this decade, there was virtually no existential theater because the genre was expensive and affordable only to the wealthy classes aligned with the Regime; however, a form of clandestine or "buried" theater (teatro soterrado) did exist.

Social Literature and the Collective Experience ($1950$-$1960$)

In the $1950$s and $1960$s, the focus shifted to Social Literature. Narrative works were no longer centered on individual protagonists but rather on collective characters, prioritizing social description over individual psychology. The goal was to portray the daily, common problems of life (Realism) with the objective of using social denunciation to change the world. The language used was clear and direct. Key examples include La colmena by Camilo José Cela, Entre visillos by Carmen Martín Gaite, and El Jarama by Rafael Sánchez Ferlosio.

Social poetry during this time utilized literature as a tool for societal transformation, focusing on social injustice and the longing for liberty. Influential poets included Blas de Otero, Gabriel Celaya, and José Hierro. In theater, this era produced works of denunciation focusing on the collective ills of an impoverished society that lacked the possibility of improvement. Key works include Historia de una escalera by Antonio Buero Vallejo and Escuadra hacia la muerte by Alfonso Sastre.

Experimental Literature and the Novísimos ($1960$-$1970$)

From $1960$ to $1970$, Spanish literature entered an Experimental phase. In narrative, there was a sense of disenchantment and an abandonment of the direct struggle against the Regime. Authors were influenced by European modernity and adopted new narrative techniques and modern themes. Notable works from this period include Cinco horas con Mario and Los santos inocentes by Miguel Delibes.

Poetry during this stage also abandoned collective social demands in favor of a more intimate and personal tone. This period introduced elements never seen before in Spanish verse and saw the rise of the "Novísimos" group. This era also marked the increased visibility of female authors. Key figures include Jaime Gil de Biedma, Pere Gimferrer, and Ana María Moix.

Theater underwent significant innovation, characterized by provocative and underground tendencies. These works often featured an active role for the spectator and the "rupture of the fourth wall." Examples of this innovative theater include Picnic by Fernando Arrabal and ¡Ay, Carmela! by José Sanchis Sinisterra.