September 22 HW Notes

MADELEINE CLARK WALLACE LIBRARY, WHEATON COLLEGE, NORTON, MASSACHUSETTS

  • The Alice Friend '34 Endowed Library Fund in Support of Art and Music.

  • The transcript refers to the significance of Indian Art in the Oxford History of Art series.

PARTHA MITTER - ACADEMIC BACKGROUND

  • Partha Mitter is a Professor in Art History at the University of Sussex.

  • He has also been associated with prestigious institutions:

    • Fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge

    • Mellon Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton

    • Research Reader of the British Academy

    • Radhakrishnan Memorial Lecturer at All Souls College, Oxford.

  • Notable publications include:

    • Much Maligned Monsters: History of European Reactions to Indian Art (1977)

    • Art and Nationalism in Colonial India, 1850-1922: Occidental Orientations (1994)

    • Numerous articles focusing on art, identity, and representation.

  • Partha Mitter has lectured widely at major universities worldwide.

BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE

## Overview of Early Buddhist Art

  • Early Buddhist art emerged as the first significant Indian artistic expression due to Buddhism's patronage by a thriving community.

  • Key characteristics:

    • Expressed clear ideological meanings.

    • Supported by an efficient monastic organization.

    • Major human endeavors driven by faith and creativity.

  • Socio-political context:

    • By the first millennium BCE, Vedic society was disintegrating, leading to urbanization along the Ganges with new trade opportunities and monetary systems.

    • Emergence of early states called mahajanapadas, where tribal republics fell under more ambitious monarchs.

    • The state of Magadha played a critical role in the formation of the first Indian empire.

    Asoka - The Emperor of Compassion

  • Asoka (c. 269-232 BCE):

    • Key figure as the first major patron of Buddhist art.

    • After succeeding Candragupta Maurya, he oversaw a vast empire known for its centralized bureaucracy.

    • His conversion to Buddhism following the violent conquest of Kalinga led to a commitment to pacifism and ethical governance.

    • Promoted the concept of dharma, emphasizing social responsibility and compassion.

    • Influenced the integration of cultural art forms as a political tool, resulting in the proliferation of Buddhist monuments.

    • Connected art with messaging to promote social stability in a diverse empire.

    Impact of Mauryan Artisan Guilds

  • Mauryan artisan guilds played a significant role in art production under Asoka.

  • Early art showed influences from Persian styles, but later scholarship argued for a more indigenous development rooted in Indian traditions.

    • John Irwin's argument against Smith's colonial hypothesis suggests:

      • Not all pillars attributed to Asoka were built during his reign; many predated him.

      • Artistic elements thought to be foreign were instead part of a broader West Asian artistic tradition.

  • The Asokan lion pillar remains a significant cultural emblem representing Buddhist ideals and imperial authority.

    Major Types of Buddhist Architecture

  • Three primary forms developed from Buddhist needs:

    • Stupa: a dome-shaped structure housing relics, symbolizing the parinirvana of the Buddha.

    • Vihara: monastic residences for monks and nuns.

    • Caitya: prayer halls for congregational worship.

  • Community-based funding played a critical role in the construction of these monuments.

  • The Great Stupa at Sanchi serves as a primary example of this architecture, merging functionality with cosmological significance.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATED TO BUDDHIST ART

  • anda: ovum or egg shape; part of the stupa's structure.

  • ayaka: decorated projection at stupas.

  • bodhisattva: 'Buddha to be'; signifies compassion in Buddhism.

  • caitya: apsidal priory hall for worship.

  • citra: painting or picture.

  • dana: giving for religious merit.

  • gavaksa: arch-shaped window in a caitya.

  • hinayana: 'Lesser Vehicle', term for earlier Buddhist schools.

  • jataka: tales of the Buddha's previous lives.

  • mahayana: 'Greater Vehicle', emphasizes bodhisattvas.

  • mudra: hand gestures with specific meanings in art and dance.

  • naga: mythical serpent, often depicted in Buddhist art.

  • parinirvana: final state of nirvana signifying the end of suffering.

  • pradaksina: clockwise circumambulation of sacred structures.

  • sangha: monastic community.

  • stupa: memorial marking Buddha’s parinirvana.

  • tirtha: sacred pilgrimage site.

  • torana: arched gateway.

  • triratna: the Three Jewels of Buddhism.

  • vihara: monastery for monks and nuns.

  • yaksha: nature spirits in folklore.

THE GREAT STUPA AT SANCHI

## Architectural Features

  • The Great Stupa at Sanchi is a prime example of early Indian architecture, filled with cosmological symbolism.

  • Its design features:

    • A svastika-shaped ground plan, representing the dharma.

    • Four gateways aligned with the cardinal directions, used for ritual circumambulation.

    • The three-tiered parasols representing protection and the concept of hierarchy in Buddhism.

  • Engravings depict significant narratives from the Buddha’s life, aimed at educating the laity through visual storytelling:

    • Jatakas highlight the importance of generosity and ethical living.

    Narrative Reliefs

  • The reliefs on the gateways of the Great Stupa demonstrate Hindu and Buddhist relationships:

    • Storytelling techniques were unified, reflecting the monastic vision of Buddhist teachings.

    • The evolution from aniconic to iconic representation of the Buddha occurred in this timeframe.

    • The tension between historical presentation and mystical narratives shaped the growth of early Buddhist art.

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN LATER BUDDHIST ART

## Transition to Iconic Representation

  • The emergence of Buddha icons marks a significant shift from symbolic representations to human forms:

    • Gandhara versus Mathura styles illustrate the geographic and cultural diversity of Buddhist expressions.

    • Historical context includes the influence of the Hellenistic culture post-exposure through Alexandrian conquests.

    • Kanishka's Empire (c. 78-101 CE) exemplifies the synthesis of diverse artistic influences and the advancement of Buddhist iconography.

    Gupta Period (c. 320-467 CE)

  • The Gupta Empire is seen as a cultural zenith:

    • Artistic advances included the refinement of Buddha sculpture.

    • Integration of elements from different regions led to a standardization of Buddhist imagery.

    • Architectural endeavors flourished, including the construction of stupas, monasteries, and caityas as religious centers.

    Ajanta Ilustrations

  • The Ajanta caves serve as a canvas for the detailed narrative of Buddhist teachings:

    • Techniques used include chiaroscuro and thematic depth in image rendering.

    • Evolutionary narrative styles portrayed human emotions, indicated by the nuanced execution of jataka tales across various caves.

Furthermore, the Ajanta paintings capture diverse natural scenes, illustrating the complex relationship between Buddism and contemporary life, establishing a rich visual language that embodies emotional and thematic vitality in ancient Indian art.