4.4

Context and Publication Details

Source Material: These notes are derived from Volume 4.4 of "Fabric of a Nation: A History with Skills and Sources," Second Edition. * Authors: Jason Stacy and Matthew Ellington. * Course Context: Specifically designed for the AP® U.S. History course. * Central Theme: Module 4.4: America on the World Stage.

The Election of 1808

Candidate Profile: James Madison: * Party: Democratic-Republican. * Home State: Virginia ( $VA$ ). * Vice Presidential Candidates: George Clinton ( $NY$ ) and John Langdon ( $NH$ ). * Results: Received $122$ electoral votes for President. The Vice Presidential breakdown was $113$ for Clinton and $9$ for Langdon.
Candidate Profile: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney: * Party: Federalist. * Home State: South Carolina ( $SC$ ). * Running Mate: Rufus King ( $NY$ ). * Results: Received $47$ electoral votes.
Candidate Profile: George Clinton: * Party: Democratic-Republican. * Home State: New York ( $NY$ ). * Running Mates: James Madison ( $VA$ ) and James Monroe ( $VA$ ). * Results: Received $6$ electoral votes for President. Vice Presidential votes were split with $3$ for Madison and $3$ for Monroe.
Election Statistics: * Total Electoral Votes Available: $175$ (representing $17$ states). * Majority Needed to Win: $88$ . * Outcome: James Madison was elected President. One electoral vote was not cast.

Expansion and the ‐Indian Problem‐

William Henry Harrison: * Appointed Governor of the Indiana Territory in $1801$ by Thomas Jefferson. * The Ultimatum: Harrison offered Native Americans two choices: assimilate into white culture by becoming farmers or move west of the Mississippi River.
British Involvement: * Following the Chesapeake incident, the British began colluding with Native American tribes as a defensive measure to protect Canada from potential U.S. expansion.
Indigenous Resistance: * Leaders: The Prophet and his brother, Tecumseh. * Philosophy: They advocated for the total rejection of white culture, including clothing, food, and alcohol. * Unification: United thousands of Native Americans at Tippecanoe Creek to resist further white encroachment.
The Battle of Tippecanoe (1811): * Conflict occurred between Harrison’s forces and the tribal confederacy. * Outcome: Harrison was victorious; the tribal confederacy was effectively destroyed. * Consequence: The destruction of the confederacy led to a persistent ‐curse‐ legend and continued localized Indian problems. * U.S. Perception: The government remained convinced that ongoing conflicts were fueled by British influence. The prevailing sentiment was that capturing Canada and removing British influence was the only viable solution to settle western territories safely.

Legislative Transitions and Trade Policy

The Non-Intercourse Act (1809): * Passed by Congress to replace the failed Embargo Act. * Function: Restricted trade specifically with France, Britain, and their respective colonies while reopening trade to other nations.
Macon’s Bill No. 2: * Replaced the Non-Intercourse Act. * Mechanism: Stipulated that trade would resume with both nations, but if either England or France repealed their trade restrictions against the U.S., the U.S. would reinstate trade restrictions against the other nation.
The ‐Ograbme‐ Satire: * A famous political cartoon by Alexander Anderson featuring a snapping turtle named ‐Ograbme‐ (embargo spelled backward) biting a merchant. * Social Impact: Criticized the embargo for the economic toll it took on merchants, sailors, and dockworkers who relied on international shipping.

The Rise of the War Hawks

The Election of 1810: * Brought a new generation of political leaders to Washington, D.C.
Prominent War Hawks: * Henry Clay: From Kentucky ( $KY$ ). * John C. Calhoun: From South Carolina ( $SC$ ).
War Hawk Agenda: * Argued that the only way to resolve Indian raids and perceived British instigation in the West and South was through military conquest. * Primary Goals: Conquer Canada (to the North) and Florida (to the South). * Pressure on Madison: Heavily lobbied President Madison to declare war in $1812$ .

The Election of 1812

Candidate Profile: James Madison: * Party: Democratic-Republican. * Home State: Virginia ( $VA$ ). * Running Mate: Elbridge Gerry ( $MA$ ). * Results: Received $128$ electoral votes for President and $131$ for Vice President.
Candidate Profile: DeWitt Clinton: * Party: Federalist. * Home State: New York ( $NY$ ). * Running Mate: Jared Ingersoll ( $PA$ ). * Results: Received $89$ electoral votes for President and $86$ for Vice President.
Election Statistics: * Total Electoral Votes: $217$ (representing $18$ states). * Majority Needed to Win: $109$ . * Outcome: James Madison was re-elected.

The Outbreak of the War of 1812

Causation: * Democratic-Republicans believed British officials in Canada were fueling Native American resistance. * Madison attempted diplomacy initially, but the combination of pressure from the War Hawks and ongoing maritime violations led him to ask for a declaration of war.
Internal Division: * Northeastern Merchants: Mostly Federalists; they opposed the war and desired a renewal of trade with Britain. * Western and Southern Interests: Supported the war for territorial gain and security.
U.S. Unpreparedness: * The U.S. was poorly positioned for a major offensive due to substantial cuts in federal spending. * Falling tax revenues and diminished military resources weakened the army. * A lack of credit occurred because the Democratic-Republicans did not recharter the Bank of the United States in $1811$ .

Major Theaters and Events of the War (1812–1814)

Conflict with Allied British and Indigenous Forces: * Indigenous allies of the British saw early success in the conflict.
Battle of Horseshoe Bend: * The U.S. defeated the Creek Nation. * Casualties: Approximately $800$ Creek warriors were killed. * Impact: Resulted in significant territory gains for the U.S., though it increased internal domestic opposition to the war.
The Turning Point of 1814: * Britain defeated Napoleon in France, allowing them to shift their full military focus to the American conflict.
The Burning of Washington (August 24, 1814): * British forces invaded via Bladensburg and entered Washington, D.C. * They set fire to the White House and the Capitol building. * President Madison narrowly escaped capture. * Historical Note: First Lady Dolley Madison is credited with saving a famous portrait of George Washington before the White House was burned.
The Bombardment of Fort McHenry (September 11–13, 1814): * British forces attempted an invasion of Baltimore. * Cultural Legacy: Francis Scott Key witnessed the bombardment and wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner."

The Peace Settlement and the Battle of New Orleans

The Treaty of Ghent: * Date: Signed on December 24, $1814$ . * Terms: No territorial changes; status quo ante bellum (things reverted to the way they were before the war). * Impressment: The treaty did not address the issue of impressment, as the British had already ceased the practice after the defeat of Napoleon.
The Battle of New Orleans: * Date: January 8, $1815$ (fought after the treaty was signed but before news reached the U.S.). * Leadership: Led by General Andrew Jackson. * Forces: Jackson’s army was a diverse group including Native American allies, backcountry immigrants, and French-speaking Black soldiers. * Casualties: The British suffered approximately $2000$ deaths, including commander Major General Sir Edward Pakenham; the Americans suffered only $70$ deaths. * Impact: Sparked a massive surge in American pride and nationalism.

The Decline of the Federalist Party

The Hartford Convention: * Timing: Met from December 15, $1814$ , to January 4, $1815$ . * Participants: Disaffected New England Federalists. * Proposed Constitutional Amendments: 1. Limit trade embargoes to a maximum of $60$ days. 2. Successive presidents cannot be from the same state (targeting the ‐Virginia Dynasty‐). 3. Removal of the $3/5$ th Clause (for calculating representation). 4. Limit the President to a single term. 5. Require a $2/3$ rd majority in Congress to declare war.
Significance of Failure: * Delegates arrived in D.C. with their demands at the same time news arrived regarding the Treaty of Ghent and Jackson’s victory at New Orleans. * The Federalists were viewed as traitors or out of touch, effectively destroying the political viability of the Federalist Party.

The Election of 1816

Candidates: * James Monroe: Democratic-Republican nominee from Virginia. * Rufus King: Federalist nominee from New York.
Results: * Total Electoral Votes: $217$ . * Majority Needed: $109$ . * James Monroe: Won $183$ electoral votes, carried $16$ states, and received $76,592$ popular votes ( $68.2\%$ ). * Rufus King: Won $34$ electoral votes, carried $3$ states, and received $34,740$ popular votes ( $30.9\%$ ). * Notes: Monroe’s running mate was Daniel D. Tompkins; King’s running mate was John E. Howard.

Post-War Expansion and Diplomacy

Treaties with Great Britain: * Established the U.S.-Canadian border at the $49$ th Parallel. * Negotiated a joint British-U.S. occupation of the Oregon Territory.
The Conflict in Florida: * Monroe sought to diminish Spanish power. * General Andrew Jackson was sent to push the Seminole Indians back into central Florida, essentially invading Spanish territory.
The Adams-Onís Treaty (1819): * Negotiated by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. * Spain ceded Florida to the United States. * Established a new boundary line between the U.S. and New Spain (Mexico).
The Monroe Doctrine (1823): * Authorship: Primarily drafted by John Quincy Adams. * Proclamation: Declared the Western Hemisphere closed to further European colonization. * Military Expansion: During this era, Monroe also established the nation’s first peacetime army.