The Reconstruction Era
The Reconstruction Era
23.1 Introduction
By the end of the Civil War, there was a strong desire among Americans for peace.
Questions arose regarding the nature of that peace:
Should it punish the South for its rebellion?
Should it aid in the rebuilding of the devastated region?
Should it facilitate the transition of four million freed African Americans into full and equal citizens?
President Abraham Lincoln, in his second inaugural address (1865), advocated for a healing peace:
"With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace."
Lincoln's assassination occurred five days after the war ended (April 14, 1865) by John Wilkes Booth, who believed that killing Lincoln would somehow save the Confederacy.
Following Lincoln's death, Vice President Andrew Johnson was tasked with healing the nation.
The challenge of Reconstruction involved rebuilding the South and integrating southern states back into the Union, while there was still significant division among Americans.
Key Considerations:
Did the end of the war and slavery create a peace that ensured liberty and justice for all?
Or was Reconstruction merely the start of a long struggle for equal rights?
23.2 Presidential Reconstruction
The end of the Civil War brought diverse perspectives on how to treat the defeated Confederacy.
President Andrew Johnson, a southern politician from Tennessee, had two primary goals for Reconstruction:
Southern States' Cooperation:
Create new state governments loyal to the Union and respectful of federal authority.
Abolition of Slavery:
Permanently abolish slavery.
Several significant questions arose:
Who would control the new state governments in the South?
Would freed slaves possess the same rights as other citizens?
What would be the relationships between freed slaves and their former owners?
Many Republicans in Congress felt strong measures were imperative for Reconstruction, envisioning a complete remaking of the South based on equal rights and a free-labor economy.
President Johnson's Reconstruction Plan (May 1865):
A former Confederate state could rejoin the Union after fulfilling several criteria:
Write a new state constitution
Elect a new state government
Repeal the act of secession
Cancel war debts
Ratify the Thirteenth Amendment (abolishing slavery)
By Fall 1865, all southern states had met these conditions, and the Thirteenth Amendment became part of the Constitution. Thus, Presidential Reconstruction began.
Freedmen's Bureau:
Established by Congress in March 1865 to assist former slaves with basic needs.
Provided food, medical care, and educational opportunities for freedmen.
Helped freedmen bargain for wages and working conditions, and distributed land in forty-acre plots.
Resentment from whites grew, viewing the Bureau as northern interference.
The hope for "forty acres and a mule" faded as Congress refrained from confiscating land from southern whites.
Education:
The most enduring benefit of the Freedmen's Bureau was in education; thousands attended public schools established by the Bureau.
Institutions like Howard University continued to serve as educational opportunities for African Americans long after the Bureau's dissolution.
The Black Codes:
As new state governments took power, many Republicans expressed alarm at seeing leaders from before the war (wealthy white planters) enacting laws known as black codes.
Black codes aimed to control freedmen, serving three primary purposes:
Limit the rights of freedmen, granting rights to marry and own property, yet denying the right to vote or serve on juries.
Assist planters in finding labor to replace slaves; individuals without jobs could be arrested and hired out.
Maintain a subordinate social order: segregation laws were enacted, barring African Americans from public schools and other facilities.
A Louisiana lawmaker justified segregation by arguing tax money should only educate the "superior race of man, the White race."
23.3 Congressional Reconstruction
At the close of 1865, President Johnson stated Reconstruction was complete and Southern states could rejoin the Union. This assertion was contested by Republican leaders in Congress.
Republicans believed the South couldn't be reconstructed without granting full citizenship rights to freedmen.
Congressional Actions (1866):
Two bills were enacted:
Extension of the Freedmen's Bureau’s life.
Civil Rights Act of 1866: aimed to counteract black codes by declaring freedmen as full citizens with the same rights as whites.
Johnson vetoed both bills, but Congress overrode his vetoes.
The Fourteenth Amendment:
This amendment granted citizenship to former slaves, stating:
"No state shall…deny to any person…the equal protection of the laws."
This provision aimed to eradicate any discrimination by state governments against citizens.
Johnson opposed the Fourteenth Amendment, prompting a call for voters to unseat Republican lawmakers.
However, Republicans secured a two-thirds majority in both houses during the 1866 election, allowing Congress to take control of Reconstruction.
Military Reconstruction Act of 1867:
The new Congress passed this Act, which divided the South into five military districts each governed by a general backed by federal troops.
Johnson's state governments were declared illegal, and new governments were to be formed by loyal southerners, black and white.
Confederate supporters were denied voting rights.
Two laws limited Johnson's interference:
Command of the Army Act
Tenure of Office Act
23.4 The Impeachment of Johnson
Johnson's violation of the Tenure of Office Act led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives.
Johnson was accused of bringing the presidency into contempt and scandal.
During his Senate trial, his lawyers argued that he should not be removed simply for opposing Congress.
A two-thirds majority was needed for conviction.
Johnson was acquitted by just one vote; however, his influence was significantly diminished.
Sharecropping:
As Congress battled over Reconstruction, African Americans sought to build new lives but needed land to farm.
Planters needed labor and developed a sharecropping system.
Land was divided into small plots rented to tenant farmers who often paid rent in crop shares (typically one-third to one-half).
Initial independence turned into cycles of poverty and debt for many sharecroppers due to borrowing from landowners for supplies.
23.5 Southern Reconstruction
The U.S. Army entered the South in 1867 to register voters, limited to freedmen, white southerners opposing the war, and northerners who had settled in the South.
The New Voters:
Most black voters joined the Republican Party.
White southerners who opposed secession were often poor farmers and also tended to support the Republican Party.
Northerners who relocated south were derisively labeled "carpetbaggers" by southern Democrats.
The 1868 Election:
Republican Ulysses S. Grant ran for president, assuring the protection of African American rights.
Grant received electoral success largely from African American votes despite losing the white vote.
The Fifteenth Amendment (1869):
This amendment guaranteed voting rights irrespective of race, color, or past servitude, intended to secure rights for African American men.
New State Constitutions:
After army registration of voters, new state constitutions were formed by elected delegates, including a significant number of African Americans.
These constitutions were among the most progressive, guaranteeing the right to vote for all adult men and establishing public schools.
New State Governments:
Newly elected officials were predominantly Republicans, and many were African Americans.
By 1870, every southern state had ratified the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and rejoined the Union.
23.6 The End of Reconstruction
Resentment developed among many white southerners towards the Reconstruction governments.
Many viewed increased taxes as stemming from the corrupt practices of southern officials, although most were honest leaders.
Opposition grew particularly due to the sight of former slaves voting and holding office.
Between 1870 and 1871, Whites Turned to Terrorism:
The Ku Klux Klan emerged as a prominent group attempting to restore white Democratic control through violence, threats, and intimidation against African Americans.
The Enforcement Acts:
Established in 1870 and 1871 to render illegal any interference in voting through intimidation or bribery. - Enforcement was initially supported by federal troops, leading to arrests of Klan members, but convictions were rare due to fear and pressure in the South.
Amnesty Act of 1872:
As northern interest waned in Reconstruction, it allowed many former Confederates to regain voting rights, leading to a resurgence of Democratic control by 1876.
The Disputed Election of 1876:
Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat) and Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) were the primary candidates. - Disputed Electoral College votes were awarded to Hayes after Republican-led commissions intervened.
The Compromise of 1877:
Allowed Hayes to assume the presidency under the condition that federal troops be withdrawn from the South, solidifying the return of "white man's rule."
Many expressed discontentment at losing the protections and gains made by freedmen.
23.7 Reconstruction Reversed
With Reconstruction over, southern leaders envisioned a “New South” focused on industrialization.
Growth in the textile industry was noted, yet poverty persisted among black and white southerners.
Education Setbacks:
Funding for public education was drastically cut, leading to decreased attendance and closed schools, particularly impacting black children.
Voting Rights Erosion:
Laws like poll taxes and literacy tests arose, often enforced unfairly against black citizens. - Grandfather clauses exempted white voters while disenfranchising black voters regardless of education.
Jim Crow Laws:
Reimplementation of segregation laws swiftly followed the return of southern Democrats to power. - These laws enforced systemic racial segregation in the South post-Reconstruction.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896):
The Supreme Court ruled segregation was constitutional as long as facilities were equal, a decision dissenting in equity by Justice Harlan.
This ruling facilitated the continuation of inferior facilities for African Americans.
23.8 Responding to Segregation
Various responses surfaced against segregation from African Americans, some through open protest, risking violence or lynching.
Migration:
Many African Americans left the South seeking better opportunities elsewhere, often in northern cities or as part of the "Exodus of 1879". - The movement indicated a desire for freedom and improvement in living conditions.
Self-help Initiatives:
Most African Americans remained in the South and worked harder within their communities. - Growth in black-owned businesses spiked, while literacy rates improved as communal efforts established schools.
Chapter Summary
The Reconstruction era witnessed the transition to a new societal order after the Civil War, focusing on civil rights for freedmen, providing them educational opportunities, and the establishment of new state governments.
As reconstruction efforts shifted, political and educational gains for African Americans were systematically reversed after federal troop withdrawal, resulting in the prosperity of Jim Crow laws and segregation.
Despite facing immense challenges, many African Americans used perseverance, community help, and migration to pursue better futures during and after Reconstruction.