STUDY SESSION 2: SPEAKING SKILLS - THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH 2.0

INTRODUCTION

  • This study session discusses the basic elements of the essential communication skill known as speaking.
  • Key topics include:
    • Organs of speech
    • Sounds of English
  • Importance of studying the material thoroughly, attempting in-text questions, and participating in session assignments.

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR STUDY SESSION 2

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

  • 2.1 Identify the organs of speech and their locations in the human body (SAQ2.1)
  • 2.2 Relate the organs with their functions (SAQ2.2)
  • 2.3 Pronounce English vowels and consonants (SAQ2.3)
  • 2.4 Recognize the symbols representing individual English vowels and consonants (SAQ2.4)
  • 2.5 Transcribe monosyllabic English words (SAQ2.5).

2.1 THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

  • Speech production involves movement of lips and other organs in the mouth to create speech sounds.
  • Speech production requires parts of the human body, referred to as the organs of speech, which modify the airstream from the lungs.
  • Half of the human body, from head to abdomen, is utilized for speech.
  • The organs involved include:
    • Lungs
    • Lips
    • Nose
    • Vocal folds
  • The diagram of the organs of speech includes:
    • Lungs: Sponge-like tissues in the rib cage providing the airstream.
    • Trachea and vocal folds are crucial in modifying the airstream:
    • Vocal folds: Two elastic tissues in the larynx.
    • Glottis: The aperture between the vocal folds, critical for sound modification.
      • Voiceless sounds occur when the glottis is open.
      • Voiced sounds occur when the glottis closes causing vibrations.
    • Vocal tract: Includes oral cavity and nasal cavity, involved in sound formation.
    • Articulators: Movable parts like tongue and lips which form sounds through contact.
    • Active articulators: Movable (e.g., tongue, lips).
    • Passive articulators: Fixed (e.g., teeth, hard palate).
Examples of Articulators
  • Soft palate/Velum: Can close nasal tract.
  • Hard palate: Bony part of the roof of the mouth.
  • Alveolar ridge: Just behind the upper teeth, felt by the tip of the tongue.
  • Upper and lower teeth: Assist in articulation.

2.2 THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH

  • Phonemes: Significant sounds used to differentiate words in a language.
  • English has 44 phonemes: 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
  • Focus mainly on articulatory criteria for describing consonants and vowels.
2.2.1 Consonants
  • Definition: Speech sounds produced with obstruction of airflow done by the articulators.
  • Consonants are described by:
    • Place of articulation: Where the contact occurs.
    • Manner of articulation: Nature of the obstruction.
    • State of the glottis: Voiced or voiceless sounds.
Types of Consonants by Place of Articulation
  • Bilabial: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ (closure with both lips)
  • Labio-dental: /f/, /v/ (lower lip contacts upper teeth)
  • Dental: /θ/, /ð/ (tongue tip against upper front teeth)
  • Alveolar: /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /l/ (tongue against alveolar ridge)
  • Post-alveolar: /r/ (tongue raised towards palate without contact)
  • Palato-alveolar: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /ʧ/, /ʤ/ (contact with the blade of the tongue and alveolar ridge)
  • Palatal: /j/ (front of tongue raised to hard palate)
  • Velar: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ (back of tongue against soft palate)
  • Glottal: /h/ (obstruction occurs at the glottis)
Types of Consonants by Manner of Articulation
  • Stops/Plosives: Total closure of airflow, e.g., /p/, /t/.
  • Fricatives: Close approximation of articulators, e.g., /f/, /v/.
  • Affricates: Begin as plosives and end as fricatives, e.g., /ʧ/, /ʤ/.
  • Nasals: Air escapes through the nose, e.g., /m/, /n/, /ŋ/.
  • Approximants: Narrowing of airflow without friction, e.g., /r/, /w/, /j/.
  • Lateral: Air flows around the sides of the tongue, e.g., /l/.
State of the Glottis
  • Voiceless: Produced when glottis is open (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/).
  • Voiced: Produced when vocal folds vibrate (e.g., /b/, /d/, /g/).
  • Practical identification of voiced sounds by feeling vibration in the larynx.
  • Summary of consonants includes chart representation with examples for each sound.
2.2.2 Vowels
  • Definition: Sounds produced without obstruction to airflow, all vowels are voiced.
  • English has 20 vowel sounds: 12 pure vowels (monophthongs) and 8 diphthongs.
Parameters for Vowel Description

  • Tongue Height:

    • High Vowels: /i:/, /u:/
    • Mid Vowels: /ɛ/, /ʌ/
    • Low Vowels: /æ/, /ɑ:/

  • Tongue Horizontality:

    • Front Vowels: /i:/, /ɛ/
    • Back Vowels: /u:/, /ɔ:/
    • Central Vowels: /ɜ:/, /ə/

  • Degree of Lip Rounding:

    • Spread: /i:/, /ɛ/
    • Neutral: /ə/, /ʌ/
    • Rounded: /u:/, /ɔ:/

  • Duration:

    • Tense (long) Vowels: /i:/, /u:/
    • Lax (short) Vowels: /ɪ/, /ʌ/
Descriptive Labels for English Vowels
  • Example representations of vowel sounds with context words included for each:
    • /i/ - high, front vowel (as in seat)
    • /ɪ/ - mid-high, front vowel (as in rich)
    • /ɛ/ - mid, front vowel (as in bed)
    • /æ/ - low, front vowel (as in man)
    • /ɑ/ - low, back vowel (as in heart)
    • /ɔ/ - mid-low, back vowel (as in door)
    • /u/ - high, back vowel (as in rule)
    • /ʌ/ - mid-low, central vowel (as in cup)
    • /ə/ - mid, central vowel (as in mother)
    • Chart representation of vowels provided.
Diphthongs

  • Diphthongs consist of two vowel sounds gliding from one to another and are equivalent to long vowels.

  • Types of Diphthongs and examples:

    • Closing Diphthongs:
    • /eɪ/: (as in gate)
    • /aɪ/: (as in time)
    • Centering Diphthongs:
    • /ɪə/: (as in here)
    • /ɛə/: (as in care)

  • Summary of differences between pure vowels and diphthongs.

2.3 SYMBOLS AND TRANSCRIPTIONS

  • The symbols used for English sounds are distinct from the 26 letters of the English alphabet, adapting from the International Phonetic Association's (IPA) alphabet.
  • Phonemes are crucial for differentiating meanings among words.
  • Transcription: The system of writing utterances in a linear sequence of sounds.
  • Phonetic symbols highlight nuances such as vowel length (using ':' diacritic).
  • Variability in representation between the number of letters and phonetic symbols in words illustrates that spelling is not a reliable guide for pronunciation.
  • Encouragement to utilize dictionaries for accurate pronunciation, with examples of contrasts provided.

SUMMARY OF STUDY SESSION 2

  • Speech production involves cooperation of the airstream and organs in the body.
  • 44 speech sounds exist: 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
  • Consonants are described by their articulation and state of glottis whereas vowels are based on tongue position and lip shapes.
  • Spoken English is transcribed to reflect pronunciation, distinct from written forms.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs)

  1. List five organs of speech and their locations in the human body.
  2. State the functions of each organ in relation to speech production.
  3. Differentiate between consonant and vowel articulation.
  4. Organize the symbols into vowels and consonants: /ə, ʒ, ɒ, ʤ, ð, ɛ, ʧ, ŋ, ɵ, æ, ʃ, ɑ, ʌ, ɔ, ʊ/.
  5. Transcribe the following monosyllabic English words:
    • a. mouth
    • b. youth
    • c. state
    • d. love
    • e. teach
    • f. care
    • g. proud
    • h. street

REFERENCES

  • Adetugbo, A. (1997). English Phonetics: A Course Text. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.
  • Awonusi, S. (1999). Coping with English Pronunciation. Lagos: O.O.P.
  • Ladefoged, P. (2006). A Course in Phonetics (5th Edn.). USA: Wadsworth.
  • Roach, P. (2000). English Phonetics and Phonology (2nd Edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

  • Clark, J., Yallop, C., and Fletcher, J. (2007). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology (3rd Edn.). Australia: Blackwell.
  • Cruttenden, A. (2008). Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. London: Hodder.
  • Yule, G. (2010). The Study of Language (4th Edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.