Matteo Ricci's Journals: A Comprehensive Study of Late Traditional Chinese Society and Administration

Arrival and Early Challenges: Matteo Ricci reached Macao in $1582$ . He faced what appeared to be insuperable difficulties in gaining a foothold in China, a society characterized as being rigidly Confucian and xenophobic.
Strategic Approach: Ricci realized that the traditional proselytizing approach used by previous missionaries would not succeed in the Chinese context. He employed a "top-down" strategy:
- He aimed to penetrate the Chinese ruling class.
- He presented himself not merely as a Christian missionary but as a "learned friend and scientist."
- To diminish suspicion among officials and scholars, he initially wore the robes of a Buddhist monk before transitioning to the robes of the Confucian scholar-official class.
Cultural Mastery and Diplomacy:
- Ricci achieved mastery of the Chinese language and the Chinese classics.
- He conducted intensive studies of Chinese history, customs, geography, philosophy, and government.
- Gifts to the Elite: He used European technology to arouse the curiosity of Chinese scholars. Gifts included:
  - Clocks.
  - Sundials.
  - Clavichords.
  - Astrolabes.
Success and Recognition:
- After $18$ years of effort, the Chinese emperor allowed Ricci to establish a residence in the imperial capital (Beijing) in $1601$ .
- Ricci lived there until his death in $1610$ .
- He was granted the honor of being buried in a plot donated by the emperor.

Foundational Impact: Over a period of $28$ years, Ricci established a permanent foundation for Christianity. He was followed by hundreds of Jesuits who converted thousands of Chinese residents.
Creation of Sinology: Ricci and subsequent Jesuits developed a deep respect and fascination for Chinese civilization, becoming the Western pioneers of Sinology.
The Intellectual Bridge:
- To China: Jesuits introduced the Bible, the works of Copernicus, and the geometry of Euclid.
- To Europe: They introduced the teachings of Confucius.
- Reference Sources: Jesuit letters and writings on Chinese society, history, and philosophy became the primary reference sources for Europeans in the $17^{th}$ century.
Literary Legacy: Ricci's diary, De Propagatione Christiana apud Sinas (On the Propagation of Christianity Among the Chinese), was published posthumously in $1615$ by the Belgian Jesuit Nicholas Trigault. Trigault edited and translated the original Italian text into Latin.

Absence of Aggression: Ricci notes that despite having a "well-equipped army and navy" and a kingdom of "limitless expanse" with "copious supplies," neither the King (Emperor) nor the people sought wars of aggression or territorial conquest.
Comparison to Europe:
- Ricci contrasts the Chinese contentment with European behavior, describing Europeans as frequently discontent with their governments and "covetous of what others enjoy."
- He observes that while Western nations are "consumed with the idea of supreme domination," they often fail to preserve ancestral legacies, unlike the Chinese who maintained their empire for thousands of years.
Critique of Western Historiography: Ricci disputes Western writers who claimed the Chinese historically subjugated India. Having studied over $4,000$ years of Chinese history and consulted learned Chinese historians, he concluded no such conquest occurred.
- Evidence of Chinese presence in places like the Philippine Islands was the result of "private enterprise" rather than official government military commissions.

Rule by Philosophers: The kingdom is administered by the "Order of the Learned," also known as the Philosophers (scholar-officials). The entire management of the realm is committed to their care.
Civilian Control of the Military:
- Both officers and soldiers show the Philosophers "promptest obedience and deference."
- Military personnel are sometimes disciplined by these scholars "as a schoolboy might be punished by his master."
- Military policies and war questions are decided exclusively by the Philosophers.
- The King values the counsel of Philosophers more than that of military leaders; military leaders are rarely admitted to war consultations.
Social Status: In Chinese society, the lowest rank in the philosophical order is preferred over the highest military rank. Ricci attributes this to the Philosophers excelling in public respect and opportunities for wealth.
Valor of the Literati: Ricci observes that the Philosophers often surpass professional soldiers in "nobility of sentiment" and "contempt of danger and death" regarding their fidelity to the King and country. He suggests that the "study of letters" ennobles the mind.

Administrative Harmony: There is strict order among magistrates regarding external ceremony and obedience to the King.
Formalities and Etiquette:
- The literati practice regular formal visits and gift-giving.
- Social inferiors must bend the knee when speaking to superiors and use "most dignified language."
- This respect is maintained regardless of a magistrate's social origins prior to earning their literary degrees.
The Rotation System:
- The standard term of office for dignitaries is $3$ years.
- Officials are typically promoted or moved to a different locality after their term.
- Purpose: This prevents magistrates from developing local friendships or a following that might lead to leniency in justice or the introduction of "novelties" (unauthorized changes) over the "rigor of the law."
Disarmament and Non-Violence:
- No one is permitted to carry arms within city limits, including soldiers and officers, unless they are heading to war or drill.
- Possession of arms in the home is forbidden, except for a metal dagger used for protection against robbers during travel.
- Physical violence among the general population is exceptionally rare; conflicts are usually limited to "hair pulling and scratching."
- A person who restrains themselves from returning a blow is praised for their "prudence and bravery."

Question 1: How do you compare the people and society of China described by Ricci with those of Europe in the sixteenth century?
Note on Response: Ricci paints China as a pacifistic, stable, and highly organized meritocracy ruled by scholars, whereas he characterizes $16^{th}$ -century Europe as expansionist, aggressive, and characterized by internal discontent and covetousness toward other nations.
Question 2: How did Ricci describe China's pacifistic tradition? Do you agree or disagree with Ricci's assessment? Why?
Note on Response: Ricci describes it as a deliberate choice by a nation that had the means for conquest but lacked the ambition, preferring to maintain existing borders and internal order. He notes that the cultural elevation of "letters" over "arms" reinforces this tradition.