2. Consequentialist & Non-Consequentialist

Consequentialist & Non-Consequentialist Theories of Morality

Overview

  • Ethics is divided into two major views:

    • Consequentialism: Concerned with consequences.

    • Non-Consequentialism: Not concerned with consequences.

Details of Consequentialism

  • Divides into two main perspectives:

    • Ethical Egoism: Acts based on self-interest.

    • Utilitarianism: Acts for the interest of all.

Ethical Egoism

Definitions

  • Psychological vs. Ethical Egoism:

    • Psychological Egoism (Pe): Descriptive theory; individuals act in self-interest (includes strong and weak versions).

      • Strong version (sPe): Always act out of self-interest.

      • Weak version (wPe): Often act in self-interest but not always.

    • Ethical Egoism (Ee): Normative theory; prescriptive in nature about how one ought to act.

Forms of Ethical Egoism

  • Three main forms of Ee:

    1. Individual Ethical Egoism (iEe): Everyone ought to act in my self-interest.

    2. Personal Ethical Egoism (pEe): I ought to act in my own self-interest.

    3. Universal Ethical Egoism (uEe): Everyone should act in their own self-interest.

Issues with Ethical Egoism

  • Concerns about iEe and pEe:

    • Lack of general applicability.

    • Need for concealment of egoism.

    • Consistency of egoism questioned.

  • uEe Critiques:

    • Inconsistency in definitions.

    • Difficulty in providing moral advice.

    • Ethical egoism conflicts with helping professions.

Advantages of uEe

  • Easier identification of self-interest.

  • Encourages individual freedom and responsibility.

Utilitarianism

Foundations

  • Based on the principle of utility (usefulness).

  • Key figures: Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.

Types of Utilitarianism

  1. Act Utilitarianism (AU): Focuses on actions bringing about the greatest good.

  2. Rule Utilitarianism (RU): Focuses on following rules that bring about the greatest good.

Variations and Critiques

Rule Utilitarianism (RU)

  • Emerges from criticisms of AU.

  • Critiques include:

    • Difficulty determining consequences for individual situations.

    • Are any rules truly exceptionless?

Act Utilitarianism (AU)

  • Each situation is unique and should be evaluated independently.

  • Critiques include:

    • Impracticality of evaluating every action anew.

    • Challenge in educating novices without preset guidelines.

Cost-Benefit Analysis in Utilitarianism

Ethical Dilemmas

  • The principle of "greatest good for the greatest number" raises moral concerns.

  • Individuals treated as means instead of ends.

Care Ethics

  • A primarily consequentialist theory championed by Carol Gilligan.

  • Differences in moral reasoning between men and women.

    • Men focus on justice; women prioritize care.

  • Both justice and care are needed in moral decisions.

Non-Consequentialist Theories

Overview

  • Assert that consequences should not affect moral judgments.

Types of Non-Consequentialist Theories

  1. Act Non-Consequentialist Theories (ANC): Focus solely on individual acts.

  2. Intuitionism: Moral decisions based on immediate sense of right and wrong.

  3. Rule Non-Consequentialist Theories (RNC): Establish rules independent of consequences.

Critiques of Non-Consequentialism

Act Non-Consequentialism Critiques

  • Conflicts arise due to different intuitions.

  • Questions about the adequacy and justification of intuitions raised.

Intuitionism Arguments

  • Claims humans possess innate moral ideas, but lacks empirical evidence for intuitions.

Kant’s Duty Ethics

Principles

  • Emphasizes good will and absolute moral rules derived from reason.

  • Categorical Imperative (CI): Maxims unacceptable if cannot be universalized.

  • Practical Imperative: Treat individuals as ends, not means.

Criticisms of Kant’s Ethics

  • Issues with conflicting duties and questionable universality.

  • Ambiguity in determining rules without exceptions.

Ross's Prima Facie Duties

  • Introduces the idea that some duties take precedence unless outweighed by other considerations.

General Criticisms of Non-Consequentialist Theories

  • Issues arise when rules conflict.

  • Questions the absoluteness of rules and if consequences can be overlooked entirely.

Conclusion

Balancing Ideas

  • Non-consequentialist theories offer strong guidance but dismiss consequences, raising complex moral questions.