Understanding Social Problems: Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration

Understanding Social Problems: Chapter 9 – Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration

Introduction

  • Minority Group Definition:
    • A minority group comprises individuals with unequal access to power, prestige, and wealth.
    • Such groups often face prejudice and discrimination.
    • The phrase “40 Acres and a Mule” signifies the historical unfulfillment of reparations for the descendants of slaves.

Chapter Objectives

  • By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
    • Explain the social construction of race and ethnicity.
    • Describe patterns of racial and ethnic diversity in the U.S.
    • Explain the relationship between historical immigration patterns and current policies.
    • Compare and contrast varying views on race, ethnicity, and immigration from:
    • Structural functionalism
    • Conflict theory
    • Symbolic interactionism
    • Identify different forms of racism and prejudice.
    • Distinguish between individual and institutional discrimination.
    • Evaluate strategies for promoting racial and ethnic equity.

The Global Context: Diversity Worldwide

Race as a Biological Concept

  • Definition of Race:
    • Classification based on inherited physical characteristics (skin color, hair texture, facial feature shape).
  • Key Points:
    • No biological basis for the concept of race exists.
    • Physical traits distinguishing races are arbitrary.
    • Scientific Racism: Historical belief in ranking human groups hierarchically based on physical characteristics prevalent in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Race as a Social Construction

  • Understanding Race in Sociology:
    • Race is a social construct derived from historical treatment of different groups rather than physical characteristics.
    • Ethnicity Definition:
    • Refers to shared cultural heritage, nationality, or lineage identifiable by language, family structure, religious beliefs, dietary customs, artistic expressions, and national origin.

Patterns of Racial and Ethnic Group Interaction

  • Terms Defined:
    • Genocide: Annihilation of an entire people/nation.
    • Expulsion: Forcing a subordinate group to leave or reside in specific areas.
    • Segregation: Physical separation of groups, differentiated as:
    • De jure (legal segregation)
    • De facto (real-world segregation)

Modes of Interaction

  • Acculturation: Adoption of different cultural practices.
  • Pluralism: Distinct racial and ethnic groups coexist, respecting each other's differences and having equal access to resources.
  • Assimilation: Merging of separate groups into one unified social structure delineated into:
    • Secondary Assimilation: Integration occurs in public domains.
    • Primary Assimilation: Personal and intimate associations among members of different groups.

American Context: Racial and Ethnic Group Diversity

  • U.S. Census Modifications: Race and ethnicity categories are subject to change for precision and clarity.
    • The 1790 Census: Categorized the population into four groups: free white males, free white females, slaves, and others (including free Blacks and Native Americans).
    • American Indian: Encompasses over 300 distinct tribal groups.
    • Largest Ethnic Group: Individuals of Hispanic origin.
    • The Census Bureau has collected data on the Hispanic population since 1970.

Immigration History and Policies in the U.S.

  • Historical Overview:
    • First century allowed immigrants to become permanent residents.
    • Chinese Exclusion Act (1882): Blocked Chinese immigrant entries for 10 years.
    • Immigration Act of 1917: Required literacy tests for immigrants.
    • Quota System in the 1920s: Limited immigration from specific countries.
    • Hart-Celler Act (1965): Abolished national quotas and prioritized family connection or job skills for immigration.

Immigration and Guest Worker Programs

  • Guest Worker Program:
    • Enables unskilled laborers to work temporarily, with distinct programs for agricultural (H-2A) and non-agricultural work (H-2B).
    • Workers often endure substandard living conditions.
  • Undocumented Immigration:
    • Occurs without legal entry; an estimated 10–12 million undocumented immigrants reside in the U.S.
    • Comprises approximately 5% of the workforce.
    • Coyote: A guide who charges $3,000–$5,000 for border crossings.
  • Nativist Groups: Advocate for restrictive immigration policies and often use vigilante actions.

Immigration Policy and Public Opinion

  • Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986): Prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.
  • Trump Administration Policies: Over 400 restrictive measures implemented, mostly through executive orders.
  • Sanctuary Cities: Implemented limits on local enforcement cooperation with federal immigration authorities.
  • Public opinion on immigration remains sharply divided, with strong support for DACA.

Becoming a U.S. Citizen

  • Naturalization Statistics: More than half of the 44.7 million foreign-born residents were naturalized citizens in 2018.
  • Five Requirements to become a U.S. citizen:
    • Lawful permanent residence
    • Proficiency in English
    • Good moral character
    • Willingness to defend the U.S. Constitution
    • Pass an examination covering English, U.S. history, and government.

Myths About Immigration

  • Common Myths:
    • Immigrants increase native unemployment and lower wages.
    • Immigrants drain public resources (welfare/schools).
    • Immigrants are unwilling to learn English.
    • Undocumented immigrants use childbirth to gain legal status.
    • Immigrants exhibit higher crime rates.

Sociological Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations

  • Structural-Functionalism: Views inequality as functional for society (disadvantaged groups perform menial jobs).
  • Conflict Theory: Argues that white racism stems from threats to economic well-being of whites.
  • Symbolic Interactionism: Emphasizes how language and symbols contribute to prejudice and stereotypes, influencing individual attitudes.

Prejudice and Racism

  • Definitions:
    • Prejudice: Preconceived opinion or bias.
    • Racism: Belief that race categorizes human character and abilities; superior races dominate.
    • Institutional Racism: Systematic distribution of advantages favoring whites at the expense of minorities.

Forms of Racism and Prejudice

  • Implicit Prejudice: Unconscious racial bias.
  • Aversive Racism: Subtle discomfort and pro-white attitudes.
  • Color-blind Racism: Belief in ignoring race as a form of racism.
  • Socialization's Role: Media influences the learning of prejudiced attitudes.

Discrimination Against Racial and Ethnic Minorities

Forms of Discrimination

  • Individual Discrimination: Unequal treatment by individuals based on group membership.
  • Overt vs. Adaptive Discrimination: Overt is based on personal prejudice; adaptive is due to the influence of others' prejudices.
  • Institutional Discrimination: Organizational policies that reinforce inequality.

Employment and Housing Discrimination

  • Colorism: Preference for lighter skin tones within racial groups.
  • Employment Discrimination:
    • White applicants receive 36% more callbacks than Black and 24% more than Latino applicants, controlling for education.
  • Housing Discrimination:
    • Redlining: Historical practice of denying loans in minority neighborhoods.
    • Sundown Towns: Deliberately white-only communities.
  • Current Neighborhood Racial Composition: Typical White residents reside in areas that are 71%-79% White.

Educational Discrimination

  • Inequality Factors:
    • Funding disparities, alumni preferences, teacher prejudices, and biased educational materials.
  • Racial Microaggressions: Daily verbal or behavioral indignities,
    • Often unintentional but harmful.

Hate Crimes

  • Definition: Unlawful violence motivated by bias; annual occurrences range between 6,000-10,000 in the U.S.
  • Motivation Types: Thrill, defensive, and mission-based motivations for hate crimes.

Strategies for Action

  • Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: Enforces laws against workplace discrimination.
  • Affirmative Action: Policies to enhance equal opportunity.
  • Multicultural Education: Promotes diversity in academic settings.
  • Whiteness Studies: Examines white privilege.
  • Retrospective Justice Initiatives: Includes official apologies and historical reparations.

Conclusion

  • Racial and ethnic categories are socially constructed and often misleading.
  • Subtle racism persists in social structures.
  • Achieving true equality necessitates recognizing and eliminating institutionalized discrimination and providing equitable opportunities for all racial and ethnic minorities.

Assessments

  • Assessment 1: Genocide is defined as the systematic annihilation of an entire nation or people.
  • Assessment 2: Jane engages in adaptive discrimination in her real estate example.
  • Assessment 3: Scientific racism ranks human groups based on observable characteristics, now considered obsolete.