Geography 10 notes

Page 1: Time Zones and Geographic Coordinates

Time Zones

  • Developed by Sir Sanford Fleming to standardize time globally.

  • Introduced in 1884, creating 24 time zones.

  • Each zone signifies where it is always a particular hour of the day.

  • Prime Meridian: Established in Greenwich, England, as the starting point.

  • Earth rotates counter-clockwise, completing 360° in 24 hours.

  • Calculation: 360° / 24 hours = 15° per hour, indicating each time zone is 15° apart.

  • Rotation Direction: West to east; time zones to the east are ahead of those in the west.

  • Canada's 6 Time Zones include:

    • Newfoundland Standard Time (½ hour difference)

    • Atlantic Standard Time

    • Eastern Standard Time

    • Central Standard Time (e.g., Manitoba)

    • Mountain Standard Time

  • Time Adjustments: Add time when going east; subtract time when going west, generally one hour per zone.

Latitude and Longitude

  • Coordinates depict locations on Earth in degrees.

  • Latitude: Measures distance from the equator (0°) to poles (90°N/S).

    • Ranges from 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles (North = 90°; South = -90°).

Page 2: Understanding Longitude and Geographic Themes

Longitude

  • Measures east and west of the Prime Meridian (0°), extending to 180°.

  • International Date Line: Located at 180° longitude, represents the point of date change.

  • Terms: Latitude ≈ parallel; Longitude ≈ meridian.

  • Notable Degrees:

    • Tropic of Cancer: 23.5°N

    • Tropic of Capricorn: 23.5°S

    • Arctic Circle: 66.5°N

    • Antarctic Circle: 66.5°S

  • Positioning: Latitude is stated first followed by Longitude (e.g., 40°N, 50°E).

Fields of Physical Geography

  • Geomorphology: Studies landforms.

  • Biogeography: Analyzes the distribution of species.

  • Climatology: Examines long-term weather patterns.

  • Cartography: The science/technique of map-making.

Five Key Spatial Themes

  1. Location:

    • Absolute: Exact positioning (coordinates).

    • Relative: Location in relation to other places.

  2. Place: Characteristics unique to an area.

  3. Movement: Relocation of people and goods.

  4. Region: Differentiations between two or more locations based on characteristics.

  5. Human/Environment Interactions: How humans interact with Earth's resources.

Maps

  • Topographical Maps: Display physical terrain.

  • Relief Maps: Show elevation differences.

  • Political Maps: Highlight boundaries/major cities.

Page 3: Types of Rock and Soil

Rock Types

  1. Sedimentary Rock:

    • Formed from sediments like sand and shells, accumulating in layers over time.

    • Generally soft, examples include sandstone, limestone.

  2. Metamorphic Rock:

    • Created under the Earth’s surface from heat and pressure.

    • Often has ribbon-like layers, examples include gneiss, marble.

  3. Igneous Rock:

    • Formed from cooling magma. Varieties include granite (slow cooling) and obsidian (rapid cooling).

Soil Profile

  • Top Soil: Rich in organic material and nutrients, dark color.

  • Subsoil: Contains minerals and incorporates organic material, lighter color.

  • Parent Material: Mineral material that forms the basis of soil.

Soil Components (4 Ingredients)

  1. Minerals: Essential for plant growth.

  2. Bacteria and Organic Material: Decomposed plants/animals forming humus.

  3. Air: Necessary for plant root health.

  4. Moisture: Essential for nutrient absorption.

Page 4: Soil Types and Clouds

Soil Types

  • Podzolic Soils: Dominated by coniferous vegetation, high precipitation.

  • Chernozem: “Black dirt,” hig in humus and nutrients, found in grasslands.

Concepts Related to Soil Formation

  • Leaching: Nutrient loss from soil due to rain/irrigation.

  • Weathering: Breakdown of rocks/minerals by natural forces.

  • Salinization: Accumulation of soluble salts in the soil.

Cloud Formation

  • Occurs when water vapor condenses into water or ice crystals.

  • Condensation: Water vapor rises, cools, and forms clouds.

  • Saturation Point: The limit of moisture a cloud can hold.

Cloud Classifications

  • Stratus: Low grey clouds (under 500m).

  • Fog: A low cloud at ground level.

  • Nimbostratus: Thick clouds blocking sunlight, causing continuous precipitation.

  • Cumulus: Puffy white clouds (2000-6000m), indicative of fair weather.

  • Cumulonimbus: Towering rain clouds associated with thunderstorms (500-2000m).

  • Cirrus: High, thin clouds made of ice crystals, signals changing weather.

  • Cloud color indicates moisture levels: White (little), dark (heavy rain), grey (possible snow/rain).

Page 5: Understanding Weather and Climate

Weather vs. Climate

  • Weather: Daily atmospheric conditions, including temperature and precipitation.

  • Climate: Average weather conditions over longer time periods.

Factors Affecting Climate/Weather

  1. Wind

  2. Latitude

  3. Elevation

  4. Proximity to Water

  5. Ocean Currents

  6. Land Aspect

Types of Climate

  • Maritime: Mild with high precipitation, minimal temperature fluctuations.

  • Continental: Seasonal with significant temperature shifts and varying precipitation levels.

Precipitation Types

  1. Orographic: Involves uplift of moist air over mountains.

  2. Frontal: Result of interaction between air fronts.

  3. Convectional: Warm air rises, cools, and releases moisture.

Atmospheric Pressure

  • Measured at 101.3 kPa.

  • High Pressure: Typically clear, sunny weather.

  • Low Pressure: Associated with cloudiness, precipitation, and cooler temperatures.

Wind Patterns

  • Windward: Side facing prevailing winds; often wet.

  • Leeward: Side away from winds; drier.

  • Coriolis Effect: Deflection of moving objects caused by Earth's rotation.

Cyclonic Systems

  • Cyclone: Low pressure areas with rising warm air, resulting in precipitation.

  • Anticyclone: High pressure areas with descending air, often clear skies.

Types of Air Masses and Fronts

  • Cold Front: Cold air pushes warm air upward leading to abrupt weather changes.

  • Warm Front: Warm air rises over cooler air, resulting in gradual weather changes.

Page 6: Industry and Economic Sectors

Levels of Industry

  1. Primary Industry: Extraction of raw materials (e.g., agriculture, mining).

  2. Secondary Industry: Processing raw materials into products, adding value (e.g., manufacturing).

  3. Tertiary Industry: Service sector (e.g., retail, transportation).

  4. Quaternary Industry: Information services (e.g., research, education).

  5. Quinary Industry: Leadership roles (e.g., senior executives).

Canadian Industry Overview

  • Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Total value of goods/services produced in Canada.

  • Key factors influencing industry location:

    • Raw materials availability.

    • Energy needs (hydro-electricity).

    • Labor sources near urban centers.

    • Transportation infrastructure.

    • Capital investment sources.

    • Government policies affecting businesses.

Page 7: Transportation Methods

Types of Transportation

  1. Truck:

    • Pros: Flexible routes, good for short distances.

    • Cons: Limited driving hours (8 hrs/day).

  2. Train:

    • Pros: Economical for bulk goods.

    • Cons: Subject to longer transit times due to stops.

  3. Air:

    • Pros: Fast global access; effective for valuable/light cargo.

    • Cons: High cost, requires airports.

  4. Ship:

    • Pros: Efficient for bulk items over long distances.

    • Cons: Slower, needs port access.

Law in Industry

  • Tort Law: Concerns civil wrongs leading to compensation claims.

  • Categories include intentional, unintentional, and strict liability torts.

Mining in Canada

  • Categories of Mining:

    1. Metallic Minerals: e.g., iron, copper.

    2. Fossil Fuels: e.g., coal, oil.

    3. Industrial Metals: e.g., gypsum, diamonds.

  • Canada is third globally in mining output, generating 83 billion annually.

  • Mining Processes: Includes milling and smelting to extract valuable minerals.

Page 8: Agriculture

Types of Agriculture

  1. Subsistence Farming: Grow food primarily to sustain family, minimal market trading.

  2. Cash Crop Farming: Grown for sale domestically/internationally.

  3. Intensive Agriculture: High yield from small land areas, significant input of labor/resources.

  4. Extensive Agriculture: Lower yield from larger land areas with limited inputs.

  5. Mixed Farming: Combination of crops and livestock to stabilize income.

Crop Success Factors

  • Soil quality and type.

  • Weather and climate conditions.

  • Precipitation amounts.

  • Duration of growing season.

  • Weeds and pest management.

Key Crops

  • Spring Wheat: Grown in spring, needs ample precipitation.

  • Winter Wheat: Grown in fall, harvested in spring.

  • Corn: Major global feed crop, primarily produced in the US.

  • Cattle: Holstein (dairy) and Hereford (beef) varieties.

  • Feedlots: Intensive animal rearing for market.

Page 9: Population Statistics

Key Demographic Metrics

  • Population Density: Number of people per area unit (e.g., 1000 persons/km²).

  • Birth Rate: Number of live births per 1000 people annually (e.g., 7/1000).

  • Death/Mortality Rate: Deaths per 1000 people annually.

  • Infant Mortality Rate: Rate of infant deaths within the first year.

  • Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): Birth rate - death rate.

  • Life Expectancy: Average expected lifespan, generally higher for females.

  • Fertility Rate: Average number of births per woman during her lifetime.

Migration Statistics

  • Immigration Rate: New arrivals in a country.

  • Emigration Rate: People leaving a country.

  • Net Migration: Immigration rate - emigration rate.

  • Population Growth Rate: RNI + net migration.