06 Representation and elections

Concept of Popular Sovereignty
- The idea that power originates from the will of the people.
- It forms the basis of democracy which can be exercised directly or indirectly.
Types of Democracy
- Direct Democracy: Citizens vote directly on laws and policies. Examples include:
  - Popular Assembly (Ecclesia) in Athens.
  - Landsgemeinde in Swiss cantons.
  - New England town meetings.
  - Referendums, plebiscites, and recalls.
  - Participatory budgeting and e-democracy.
- Indirect (Representative) Democracy:
  - Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
  - Importance of maintaining a reliable link between the government and the electorate.
  - Concepts of electoral mandates and recall mechanisms.

Main Models of Representation:
- Trusteeship Model: Representatives exercise independent judgment.
- Delegate Model: Representatives act strictly as mouthpieces for constituents.
- Mandate Model: Authority gained through winning elections and implementing campaign promises.
- Resemblance Model: Representatives should reflect the diversity of society.

Functions of Elections:
- Necessary for legitimizing authority and facilitating peaceful transfer of power.
- Acts as an accountability tool for politicians.
- Opportunity for educating voters and legitimizing political elites.
Principles of Democratic Elections:
- Must ensure free and fair elections with political liberties.
- Universal and equal suffrage.
- Direct and secret ballot is essential.
- Establish legal frameworks to contest results and prevent fraud.

Timeline of Suffrage Expansion:
- 1776: New Jersey saw universal male and female landowner suffrage until 1807.
- 1869/90: Wyoming allowed universal suffrage for men and active for women.
- 1918: Many countries, including Germany and the UK, extended suffrage to women.
- Notable dates illustrating gradual enfranchisement up to 1919.

Post-World War I Developments:
- 1920: United States granted universal suffrage to men and women.
- Continued expansions in various countries, reflecting major societal shifts.
- Specific mention of changes in countries like France, Italy, and Turkey.

Definition: Electoral systems determine rules for conducting elections.
Factors Influencing Electoral Systems:
- Variety in voting methods: single vs. plural ballots, candidates vs. party systems.
- Types of Systems:
  - Majoritarian: e.g., First Past the Post (FPTP).
  - Proportional Representation (PR).
  - Mixed systems combining both.
Trade-offs: Representation vs. governability.

Majoritarian Systems: Designed for stable governments, often leading to two-party systems.
Proportional Systems: Encourage multi-party representation but may lead to unstable coalitions.
Comparison Factors:
- Voter-representative linkage.
- Accountability and representation quality.

Basic Features:
- Two-vote mixed system introduced.
- Compensation for lost votes, allowing multiple parties representation.
Current Regulations:
- Continual adjustments to enhance representations and meet political needs.

Electoral Machines and Voting Design: Advances in technology for electoral efficiency.
Understanding Voting Behavior: Flow of information and voter responses in various election contexts.

Significance of Electoral Systems: The choice of electoral systems and the conduct of elections critically shape political representation and democratic outcomes.
Future Trends: Ongoing evolution and adaptation of electoral practices worldwide.