chapter 1 -3 bio

  • five fundamental characteristics of living organisms = acquire and use energy, made up of membrane-bound cells, process information, replication, and populations of organisms evolve

theories

  • 3 characteristics of cell theory = cells are the fundamental unit of life , all organisms are made of cells , and all cells come from preexisting cells

  • evolution theory = all species are related by common ancestry, and descent with modification (natural selection = individuals , evolutionary changes occur in populations )

domains + groups

  • fundy groups and domains = eukaryotes, do have membrane-bound nucleus, (eukarya, more than one cell) and prokaryotes, don’t have membrane-bound nucleus, (bacteria and archaea, single cells)

  • paster experiment and conclusion =

  • Taxonomy = the naming and classifying of organisms , taxon is a named group , Genus is capital (italic) and specific epithet is lowercase , more than one organism can have the same genus name and same with the second part, but only one organism can have a unique combo of both

scientific method

  • Scientific Method = observation , hypothesis , null or alternative hypothesis , experiment , analyze , and support or reject conclusion.

  • experimental design and control group/treatment = control group is the group that does NOT receive the new treatment being studied , experimental design includes a control group to ensure nothing is biased, experimental conditions were controlled to eliminate other variables and the test was repeated multiple times.

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CHAPTER 2 NOTES

  • four atoms that make up 96% of all matter = carbon hydrogen nitrogen and oxygen

what atoms are made of

  • protons = positively charged and located in the nucleus , atomic number

  • neutrons = neutral charged and located in the nucleus

  • electrons = negatively charged and found in orbits surrounding the nucleus

  • mass number = p + n

  • isotopes = forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons (different atomic mass) , atoms that have the same number of protons

  • valence = outermost shell , number of unpaired electrons is the atoms valence, the combining power of an element

bonds

  • ionic and covalent bonds = electrons are transferred from one atom to another , each atoms unpaired valence electrons are shared by both nuclei to fill their orbitals

  • non-polar covalent bonds - equal sharing of electrons

  • polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons

  • electronegatively = when an atom holds e tightly, increasing is left to right on the pt , decreasing is going down on pt

  • EN PART 2 = increases when protons increase and decreases when the number of electron shield increases

models of atoms

  • molecular = type and number of atoms

  • structural = which atoms are bonded together and what types of bonds bind the atoms together

  • ball and stick = color-coded spheres , specific to different elements

  • space-filling = more accurate version of ball and stick bc it shows the relative sizes of the atoms

properties of H2O

  • cohesion = like molecules attraction

  • adhesion = unlike molecules attraction

  • every cell → 75% water

  • most abundant molecule

  • efficient solvent = polar covalent bonds bc O2(partial negative charge) has a greater EN than H2 (partial positive charge)

  • high specific heat and high heat of vaporization

hydrogen bonds

  • hydrophilic atoms and molecules = ions and polar molecules that stay in solution , stay in solution bc of h2o’s partial charges

  • hydrogen bonding = makes it possible for any charged or polar molecule to dissolve in water

  • hydrophobic molecules = don’t dissolve in water, uncharged and non polar compounds

solutions and pH

  • the lower the pH , the more acidic

  • neutral is 7 or 10^-7

  • acid solution (1,2,3,4,5,6) = when hydrogen ions are releases when combined with water

  • base solution (8,9,10,etc) = a aqueous solution with a higher pH concentration of OH-ions than H+ions , absorbs hydrogen ions from acids

chemical reactions

  • CO2(g) + H2O(l) ↔ H2CO3(aq)

    CO2 and H2O are reactants and H2CO3 is an product

  • chemical equilibrium - forward and reverse reactions proceed at the SAME rate , quantities of the reactants and products remain constant

  • endothermic reaction - must absorb heat

  • exothermic reaction - release heat

spontaneous reactions

  • happens without any added energy

  • happens when the product has LESS potential energy than the reactants and when the products are less ordered than the reactants

  • reactants : high PE , more order (lower entropy)

  • products : less PE , less order (higher entropy)

prebolic soup and surface metabolism models

  • prebolic - molecules come from gases in atmosphere or on meteorites (ended up in the oceans upon condensation, additional ones went into complex molecules)

  • surface - surface gases went to minerals near deep sea vents and turned into reactants and complex molecules

energy and carbon

  • energy was required during chemical evolution

  • carbon is super versatile bc of its four valence electrons

  • amino - amines , structure (>)

  • carboxyl - carboxylic acids , structure (<)

  • carbonyl - aldehydes , sturcture (<) ,, ketones and structures (I)

  • hydroxyl - alcohols , structure (-)

  • phosphate - organic phosphates , structure (+)

  • sulfhydryl - thiosi , structure (SH)

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CHAPTER 3 NOTES

amino acids

  • 20 amino acids make up molecules but there are over 20,000 proteins

  • all amino acids consist of H , NH2 , COOH , and a distinctive R-group

side chains

  • four groups are acidic , basic , uncharged polar and nonpolar

  • several amino acid chains contain hydroxyl , amino , carboxyl , and sulfhydryl

  • if the side chain has a negative charge = acidic

  • if the side chain is positive = basic

  • side chain is uncharged = uncharged polar

  • if none of the above = non-polar

reactivity

  • non-polar r groups = hydrophobic , dont form hydrogen bonds , lack charged or highly electronegative atoms capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water

  • polar r groups = hydrophilic , form hydrogen bonds and readily dissolve in water

peptide bonds

  • condensation reaction = when AA polymerize and a bond forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino acid of another (monomer in , water out)

  • hydrolysis = reverse reaction that breaks polymers apart by adding a water molecule (water in , monomer out)

  • C-N bond is called a peptide bond

  • unusually stable

  • residues = when the AA are linked into a chain by peptide bonds

  • peptides = chain of AA linked by peptide bonds

  • oligopeptides = chains of polypeptides of fewer than 50 AA

  • polypeptides = chains of polypeptides of more than 50 AA

  • N-terminus - free amino group on the left

  • C-terminus - free carboxyl group on the right

protein structure

  • primary structure = unique sequence of amino acids , fundamental to the higher levels of protein structure

  • secondary structure = formed by hydrogen bonds , bends in a way that puts C = O and N-H groups close together forming helixes and pleated sheets

  • tertiary structure = results from interactions between R-groups or between R-groups and the peptide backbone

  • TERTIARY STRUCTURE pt 2 = r-group interactions include hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, van der waals interactions , covalent disulfide bonds , and ionic bonds

  • quaternary structure = bonding of two or more distinct polypeptide subunits

folding and function

  • denatured protein = unable to function normally

  • molecular chaperones = help proteins fold correctly in cells

  • regulates the proteins activity and controls when or where it is folded

  • prions = improperly folded forms of normal proteins , present in healthy individuals

  • happens spontaneously

enzymes

  • bring substrates together in precise orientation that makes reactions more likely

  • decrease the amount of KE that reactants must have for the reaction to proceed

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