An Introduction to Rhetoric: Analysis, Situations, and Appeals
Foundations of Rhetoric and Using the Available Means
Common Misconceptions vs. Classical Definition:
In contemporary usage, the word rhetoric frequently carries negative connotations, signaling trickery, deception, political spin, or manipulation (e.g., the dismissive critique "empty rhetoric!").
Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384BCE--BCE322) defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion."
At its best, rhetoric is a thoughtful, reflective, and rational activity that enables effective communication and the civil exchange of opposing viewpoints.
Understanding rhetoric equips individuals to resolve conflicts without direct confrontation, persuade audiences to support specific positions, and move people to positive action.
Ubiquity and Scope of Rhetoric:
Rhetoric is not restricted to formal political speeches or ancient historical figures.
Everyday applications include convincing a friend to listen to a specific artist (e.g., John Coltrane), writing a blog post arguing why Night of the Living Dead is an influential horror movie, or persuading parents to purchase a car.
Rhetorical principles apply to all forms of communication, including essays, political cartoons, photographs, advertisements, and documentary films.
Concept of "Texts":
In rhetorical analysis, any cultural product that can be "read"—meaning not merely consumed or comprehended, but investigated and decoded—is defined as a text.
Documentary films involve deliberate rhetorical choices: lighting for interviews, background music selection, and what footage to include or edit out based on persuasive impact.
Being an informed citizen and consumer requires reading between the lines across all media to recognize manipulation and appreciate genuine, effective, and civil communication.
Activity: Evaluating Rhetorical Quality:
Identify one article, speech, video, or advertisement perceived as manipulative or deceptive, and one perceived as civil and effective, contrasting the underlying methods of persuasion.
The Rhetorical Situation
Situational Nature of Rhetoric:
All rhetoric occurs within a specific context and is tied to a particular occasion and purpose.
Occasion: The specific time and place a text was written or spoken.
Context: The broader circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and historical events surrounding the text.
Purpose: The primary goal or outcome the speaker wants to achieve.
Case Study: Lou Gehrig’s Farewell Speech (July 4, 1939):
Background: New York Yankees baseball player Lou Gehrig was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a fatal neurological disorder stripping away physical strength and muscle coordination.
Occasion: Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium, delivered at home plate between games of a doubleheader.
Context: Gehrig had recently retired after holding the record for consecutive games played (). Known as the "Iron Horse," his sudden physical decline was a devastating tragedy. During the ceremony, he was physically weak and required assistance walking to the mound.
Purpose: To express gratitude to fans, teammates, managers, and family, while demonstrating unwavering optimism and downplaying his fatal illness.
Full Text of Lou Gehrig's Farewell Speech: > "Fans, for the past two weeks you have been reading about a bad break I got. Yet today I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the earth. I have been in ballparks for seventeen years and have never received anything but kindness and encouragement from you fans. > > Look at these grand men. Which of you wouldn’t consider it the highlight of his career just to associate with them for even one day? Sure, I’m lucky. Who wouldn’t consider it an honor to have known Jacob Ruppert; also the builder of baseball’s greatest empire, Ed Barrow; to have spent six years with that wonderful little fellow, Miller Huggins; then to have spent the next nine years with that outstanding leader, that smart student of psychology — the best manager in baseball today, Joe McCarthy? Who wouldn’t feel honored to have roomed with such a grand guy as Bill Dickey? > > Sure, I’m lucky. When the New York Giants, a team you would give your right arm to beat, and vice versa, sends you a gift — that’s something! When everybody down to the groundskeepers and those boys in white coats remember you with trophies — that’s something! > > When you have a wonderful mother-in-law who takes sides with you in squabbles against her own daughter — that’s something! When you have a father and mother who work all their lives so that you can have an education and build your body — it’s a blessing! When you have a wife who has been a tower of strength and shown more courage than you dreamed existed — that’s the finest I know! > > So I close in saying that I might have been given a bad break, but I have an awful lot to live for! Thank you."
Rhetorical Analysis of Gehrig's Speech:
Gehrig reframes a catastrophic diagnosis into a catalog of lucky breaks preceding it.
He uses straightforward, athletic diction, referring to his illness simply as a "bad break."
There is no blame, self-pity, or plea for sympathy; he accepts his fate with dignity, humility, and humor, embodying the resilient "can-do" spirit.
The Rhetorical Triangle
Core Structure of the Rhetorical Triangle (Aristotelian Triangle):
Visualizes the dynamic relationship among three core elements: Speaker, Audience, and Subject, anchored around the Text.
Key Components:
Speaker: The individual or group generating the text (e.g., politician, commentator, cartoonist, corporation).
Persona: The character or mask a speaker adopts when presenting a text (from the Greek word for "mask"). While Gehrig is a celebrated sports hero, his persona in the speech is that of a humble, grateful, common man.
Audience: The listeners, viewers, or readers of a text. Texts often have primary, secondary, and unintended audiences.
Speakers evaluate audience values, knowledge levels, and dispositions (hostile, friendly, or neutral).
Gehrig’s audience included stadium fans, opposing team members, radio listeners, and future generations.
Subject: The explicit topic addressed within the text. Distinguish subject from purpose (the goal to be achieved).
Gehrig's subject is his illness and the fortunate events of his life; his purpose is to thank his supporters and maintain a courageous stance.
Activity: Analyzing a Rhetorical Situation:
Construct a rhetorical analysis for a review of a movie, video game, or concert by identifying the subject, purpose, target audience, and personal relationship to that audience.
SOAPS: A Mnemonic for Analyzing the Rhetorical Situation
The SOAPS Framework:
Subject: The topic or underlying material.
Occasion: The specific context, time, and trigger.
Audience: The intended recipient(s) of the message.
Purpose: The goal or intended effect of the text.
Speaker: The identity and persona of the author/creator.
Exemplar Analysis: Albert Einstein’s Letter to Phyllis Wright (January 24, 1936):
Background: Written in response to a sixth-grade student asking whether scientists pray and what they pray for.
Full Text of Letter: > "January 24, 1936 > Dear Phyllis, > I have tried to respond to your question as simply as I could. Here is my answer. > Scientific research is based on the idea that everything that takes place is determined by laws of nature, and therefore this holds for the actions of people. For this reason, a research scientist will hardly be inclined to believe that events could be influenced by a prayer, i.e., by a wish addressed to a supernatural being. > However, it must be admitted that our actual knowledge of these laws is only imperfect and fragmentary, so that, actually, the belief in the existence of basic all-embracing laws in Nature also rests on a sort of faith. All the same this faith has been largely justified so far by the success of scientific research. > But, on the other hand, every one who is seriously involved in the pursuit of science becomes convinced that a spirit is manifest in the laws of the Universe — a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble. In this way the pursuit of science leads to a religious feeling of a special sort, which is indeed quite different from the religiosity of someone more naive. > I hope this answers your question. > Best wishes > Yours, Albert Einstein"
SOAPS Breakdown:
Subject: Explicitly, whether scientists pray; implicitly, the nature of faith and the connection between science and religion.
Occasion: Receipt of a letter from a young student inquiring about science and religion.
Audience: Primary audience is Phyllis Wright (twelve years old); secondary audience is the general public/posterity (Einstein was a Nobel laureate in Physics, awarded , approaching age ).
Purpose: To respond sincerely to a child, expand her perspective, and show that science and religion are not inherently antagonistic.
Speaker: Albert Einstein, a world-renowned theoretical scientist adopting the persona of a wise, courteous elder engaging with the younger generation.
Activity: SOAPS Analysis of George W. Bush’s 9/11 Address:
Apply SOAPS to President George W. Bush’s speech delivered on September 11, 2001: > "Good evening. Today, our fellow citizens, our way of life, our very freedom came under attack in a series of deliberate and deadly terrorist acts… > Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shatter steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve…"
Rhetorical Appeals: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos
Ethos (Appeals to Character and Credibility)
Definition and Mechanics:
Derived from the Greek word for "character."
Demonstrates that the speaker is credible, trustworthy, and knowledgeable.
Frequently relies on establishing shared values between speaker and audience.
Can be based on automatic status/reputation or built within the text itself through tone, reason, and fairness.
Automatic Ethos: King George VI Speech (September 3, 1939):
Delivered via radio upon Britain's declaration of war against Germany.
Text Excerpt: > "In this grave hour, perhaps the most fateful in history, I send to every household of my peoples… a message, spoken with the same depth of feeling for each one of you as if I were able to cross your threshold and speak to you myself…"
Rhetorical Features:
Automatic authority through royal title.
Establishes shared burden by using inclusive pronouns ("we," "our enemies").
Connects with commoners through shared principles of justice, liberty, and religious commitment.
Building Ethos: Judith Ortiz Cofer Excerpt:
From The Myth of the Latin Woman: I Just Met a Girl Named Maria.
Text Excerpt: > "On a bus trip to London from Oxford University where I was earning some graduate credits one summer, a young man… broke into an Irish tenor’s rendition of 'Maria' from West Side Story… As a Puerto Rican girl growing up in the United States and wanting like most children to 'belong,' I resented the stereotype that my Hispanic appearance called forth…"
Rhetorical Features:
Establishes ethos by citing cultural identity (Puerto Rican/Latina), advanced academic credentials (graduate studies at Oxford), and personal experiences with ethnic stereotyping.
Activity: Establishing Ethos across Audiences:
Compare how to establish ethos when arguing a point (e.g., anti-bullying measures) to two distinct groups: a School Board/parents vs. middle school students.
Logos (Appeals to Reason and Logic)
Definition and Mechanics:
Derived from the Greek word for "embodied thought."
Appeals to reason through clear, rational ideas, supported by specific details, facts, statistics, expert testimony, and quantitative data.
Involves defining key terms, demonstrating logical cause-and-effect chains, and providing structured evidence.
Conceding and Refuting Counterarguments:
Addressing counterarguments demonstrates thoroughness and enhances credibility.
Concession: Acknowledging that an opposing view may be true, valid, or reasonable.
Refutation: Denying the validity of all or part of the opposing argument using evidence and reasoning.
Exemplar Analysis: Alice Waters (Slow Food Nation):
Text Excerpt: > "It’s no wonder our national attention span is so short: We get hammered with the message that everything in our lives should be fast, cheap and easy — especially food… When we claim that eating well is an elitist preoccupation, we create a smokescreen that obscures the fundamental role our food decisions have in shaping the world. The reason that eating well in this country costs more than eating poorly is that we have a set of agricultural policies that subsidize fast food… Organic foods seem elitist only because industrial food is artificially cheap…"
Rhetorical Features:
Refutes the counterargument that eating healthy, organic food is purely an "elitist" concern.
Redefines terms like "cheap" and "expensive," tracing true systemic costs to public health, government subsidies, and environmental degradation.
Activity: Evaluating Logos in George Will’s King Coal: Reigning in China:
Analyze George Will's use of facts, numbers, and quotations regarding global coal utilization ( annually; burned in China; new urban residents expected in ) to build a logical case.
Pathos (Appeals to Emotion, Values, and Passions)
Definition and Mechanics:
Derived from the Greek word for "suffering" or "experience."
Motivates audiences by appealing to emotions, desires, hopes, fears, or prejudices.
Utilizes vivid sensory imagery, figurative language, personal anecdotes, and emotionally charged diction.
Purely emotional arguments are considered weak or propagandistic; pathos works best when coupled with ethos and logos.
Anecdotal Pathos: Richard Nixon’s Checkers Speech (1952):
Delivered by Vice-Presidential candidate Richard Nixon to address allegations of political financial impropriety.
Text Excerpt: > "…A man down in Texas heard Pat on the radio mention the fact that our two youngsters would like to have a dog… It was a little cocker spaniel dog in a crate that he’d sent all the way from Texas, black and white, spotted. And our little girl Tricia, the six-year-old, named it 'Checkers.' And you know, the kids, like all kids, love the dog, and I just want to say this, right now, that regardless of what they say about it, we’re gonna keep it."
Effect:
Engaged popular sympathy by focusing on family, children, and a pet puppy, successfully diverting public scrutiny away from financial audit questions.
Visual Pathos and Diction: ACLU Advertisement:
Headline: "THE MAN ON THE LEFT IS 75 TIMES MORE LIKELY TO BE STOPPED BY THE POLICE WHILE DRIVING THAN THE MAN ON THE RIGHT."
Images: Side-by-side comparison of civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. and convicted serial killer Charles Manson formatted like a "wanted" poster.
Rhetorical Features:
Juxtaposes a beloved hero with an infamous murderer to create a sharp emotional impact against racial profiling.
Incorporates Florida traffic statistics ( of drivers stopped were Black or Hispanic, despite constituting only of drivers) to combine pathos with logos.
Humor as Pathos: Ruth Marcus (Crackberry Congress, 2010):
Text Excerpt: > "Mr. Speaker, please don’t. Go ahead, if you must, and cut taxes. Slash spending. Repeal health care… But BlackBerrys and iPads and laptops on the House floor? Reconsider, before it’s too late…"
Rhetorical Features:
Employs lighthearted self-deprecation (admitting her phone once clucked like a chicken in a meeting) to criticize digital distractions in legislative chambers without appearing overly moralistic or pedantic.
Activity: General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s D-Day Order of the Day (1944):
Examine Eisenhower’s pre-invasion address to Allied forces:
> "Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force! You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The eyes of the world are upon you…"
Combining Ethos, Logos, and Pathos: Toni Morrison’s Endorsement Letter
Context: Open letter published in The New York Times in 2008 by Nobel laureate Toni Morrison endorsing Barack Obama for the Democratic presidential nomination.
Rhetorical Synthesis:
Ethos: Established through her cultural standing as a Nobel laureate in Literature and Princeton professor. She maintains humility by deferentially asking, "May I describe to you my thoughts?"
Logos: Evaluates candidate traits logically; addresses and refutes counterarguments regarding Hillary Clinton's experience and Obama's race/age, arguing that wisdom is an un-embargoed, essential quality distinct from raw tenure or age.
Pathos: Uses evocative metaphors of rebirth and labor ("Our future is ripe, outrageously rich in its possibilities… unleash the glory of that future…").
Rhetorical Analysis of Visual Texts
Visual Arguments:
Visual artifacts (photographs, editorial cartoons, print ads) function as arguments containing claims, contexts, occasions, and rhetorical appeals.
Case Study: Tom Toles Editorial Cartoon on Rosa Parks (2006):
Occasion: Passing of civil rights icon Rosa Parks in 2005/2006.
Context: Decades after her 1955 refusal to give up her seat on a segregated Montgomery bus.
Appeals Breakdown:
Ethos: Toles's reputation as a Pulitzer Prize-winning political cartoonist for The Washington Post.
Pathos: Depicts Parks in her simple coat and handbag being welcomed by Saint Peter at heaven's gates.
Logos/Caption: "We’ve been holding it [the front row in heaven] open since 1955." Links her physical position on the bus to her spiritual reward, highlighting the passage of time.
Activity: World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Print Advertisement:
Analyze the interaction between visual layout (close-up of a spotted fish eye) and written text ( sub-Saharan African fishermen; fish decline over ):
Determining Effective and Ineffective Rhetoric
Failed Rhetoric: Mr. Collins’s Proposal in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice:
Text Summary: Mr. Collins proposes to Elizabeth Bennet listing mechanical, self-centered reasons: (1) every clergyman should set an example of matrimony, (2) it will add to his happiness, (3) his patroness Lady Catherine recommended it.
Rhetorical Failure: Completely misreads his audience; appeals entirely to his own self-interest and financial dominance rather than engaging Elizabeth’s values, resulting in immediate rejection.
Debatable Rhetoric: PETA "Child Abuse" Advertisement:
Visual Content: A chubby child biting into a burger with a red arrow claiming "Feeding Kids Meat Is CHILD ABUSE" and urging viewers to "Fight the Fat: Go Vegan."
Critique:
Proponents: View it as a bold, attention-grabbing strategy highlighting childhood obesity.
Critics: View it as extreme hyperbole and offensive scare tactics that alienate parents and undermine PETA's credibility.
Analyzing Complex Arguments: Anne Applebaum’s Fukushima Nuclear Power Op-Ed (2011):
Thesis: "If the Japanese Can't Build a Safe Reactor, Who Can?"
Text Summary: Following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant damage caused by an earthquake and tsunami, Applebaum argues against expanding global nuclear energy production, citing rising construction costs in Finland ( ballooning to ) and long-term taxpayer liabilities.
Student Analysis by Tamar Demby (Alarmist or Alarming Rhetoric?):
Demby argues Applebaum undermines her persuasive goals by relying on emotional alarms (Chernobyl references, descriptions of radioactive steam) rather than establishing scientific credentials or presenting technical risk evidence.
Activity: Pedestrian Safety Advertisement Analysis:
Evaluate the Federal Highway Administration ad featuring an overturned stroller in a crosswalk:
Culminating Activity: Comprehensive Analysis of Apollo 11 Texts
Text 1: News Report — The Times of London (July 21, 1969)
Diction & Focus: Journalistic objectivity, detailed technical coverage, step-by-step reporting of Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin stepping onto the lunar surface from the module Eagle.
Quotes Preserved: "That's one small step for man but one giant leap for mankind." Ground control: "We got a bunch of guys on the ground about to turn blue. We're breathing again."
Global Reactions: Documents international commentary from President Nixon, Prime Minister Harold Wilson, Moscow Radio, Pope Paul VI, President Saragat of Italy, King Hussein of Jordan, Prime Minister Tage Erlander of Sweden, and Sir Bernard Lovell.
Text 2: Contingency Speech — William Safire (In Event of Moon Disaster)
Context: Drafted for President Nixon in the event astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin were marooned on the moon.
Rhetorical Strategy: High solemnity and deep pathos. Frame their potential death not as a tragic failure, but as a noble sacrifice for mankind's search for truth ("Fate has ordained that the men who went to the moon to explore in peace will stay on the moon to rest in peace…").
Text 3: Philosophical Commentary — Ayn Rand (The July 16, 1969, Launch: A Symbol of Man’s Greatness)
Context: Published in The Objectivist.
Core Argument: The moon launch is a triumph of human rationality, logic, and mastery over nature ("concretized abstraction of man's greatness").
Sensory Imagery: Vivid description of the Saturn V rocket launch, the flame wings, and the cracking sound breaking space apart.
Text 4: Editorial Cartoon — Herblock (Transported, July 18, 1969)
Visual Content: Depicts an everyday citizen sitting in an armchair atop a glowing moon watching television, looking down at Earth enveloped in clouds labeled "WAR," "POVERTY," and "PREJUDICE."
Rhetorical Meaning: Contrasts mankind's transcendent technological achievements with persistent social and political failures on Earth.
Glossary of Rhetorical Terms
Aristotelian Triangle: See Rhetorical Triangle.
Audience: The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts have multiple audiences. (Example: Gehrig's audience included stadium fans, opposing players, radio listeners, and posterity).
Concession: An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. Usually accompanied by a refutation. (Example: Gehrig concedes that his illness is a "bad break").
Connotation: Associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition (denotation). Can be positive or negative. (Example: Comparing plump, fat, and obese).
Context: The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text. (Example: The context for Gehrig's speech was his fatal illness diagnosis following an illustrious athletic career).
Counterargument: An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Addressed through concession and refutation.
Ethos: Greek for "character." Appeal to credibility and trustworthiness, established by reputation or textual presentation.
Logos: Greek for "embodied thought." Appeal to reason and logic using facts, statistics, structured proof, and expert testimony.
Occasion: The time and place a speech is given or a text is written. (Example: Gehrig's occasion was Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at home plate).
Pathos: Greek for "suffering" or "experience." Emotional appeal playing on values, desires, hopes, fears, or prejudices.
Persona: Greek for "mask." The face or character a speaker shows to the audience. (Example: Gehrig presenting himself as a modest common man).
Polemic: Greek for "hostile." An aggressive argument establishing superiority over all opposing views without concession.
Propaganda: The spread of ideas and information to further a cause, often using scare tactics or disinformation in its negative sense.
Purpose: The goal the speaker wants to achieve.
Refutation: A denial of the validity of an opposing argument, usually following a concession.
Rhetoric: "The faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion" (Aristotle).
Rhetorical Appeals: Techniques used to persuade an audience (ethos, logos, pathos).
Rhetorical Triangle (Aristotelian Triangle): Diagram showing the interrelationship among Speaker, Audience, and Subject.
SOAPS: Mnemonic device for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker.