Family, Parenthood, and Work

FAMILY

  • Family ideas and roles are socially constructed, influenced by gender and age.

  • Concepts like motherhood and fatherhood are tied to gender roles.

BINARY PARENTAL EXPECTATIONS

  • Mainstream society constructs expectations about mothers and fathers in binary ways.

MOTHERHOOD

  • Motherhood is a socially constructed concept, not entirely natural.

  • Dr. Carol Smart: Motherhood involves choices and socialization processes.

  • Giving birth doesn't always lead to motherhood due to cultural/SES differences.

  • Historically, motherhood wasn't legally recognized until the mid-1800s; fatherhood was recognized earlier.

  • Wealthy philanthropists imposed "good mother" standards on working-class women.

  • Heteronormative presumption: women will be heterosexual, married, and have children.

  • Motherhood is both normalized and punished based on adherence to norms.

MOTHERHOOD AS AN OPTION

  • Women who choose not to have children or are infertile may face punishment; their gender may be viewed differently.

READING – MOTHERHOOD MANDATE – NANCY FELIPE RUSSO

  • Explores the rules and consequences of not following the motherhood mandate; these rules can change over time.

FATHERHOOD

  • Views of fatherhood shift over time; men are expected to earn money but not always actively raise children.

  • 1980s/1990s: push for fathers to be more involved in children's lives, focusing on positive interactions.

  • Fathers who abandon children are often viewed through an economic lens (child support).

FATHERHOOD AS AN OPTION

  • Men who don't want children may face different gendered views and potential punishments.

OVERALL SOCIAL VIEWS

  • Fathers: Seen as incompetent, less fit for caregiving, peripheral influence.

  • Mothers: Seen as competent, nurturing, biologically suited for caregiving.

FATHERHOOD

  • Fathers spend time with children, especially ages 2-5, often with the mother.

  • Negative discourses about fathers' roles can impact fathers/men negatively.

THEBAUD – MASCULINITY, BARGAINING, AND BREADWINNING

  • Links between strong masculinity beliefs about breadwinning and beliefs about unpaid labor men should engage in.

CHARTER ET AL. – THE TRANSGENDER PARENT

  • Parenthood initially alienating for transgender parents; transitioning allows negotiation of parenting identity.

  • Pregnancy a "functional sacrifice"; healthcare systems often unsupportive.

QUEER PARENTS

  • Traditional parenting role divisions don't apply in same-gender families; need to adapt.

APA – PARENTING RESOURCES

  • No empirical basis for beliefs that lesbian and gay adults are unfit parents.

  • Lesbian and heterosexual women don't differ markedly in mental health or child-rearing approaches.

  • Gay fathers likely to divide childcare work evenly and report relationship satisfaction.

  • Lesbian mothers' and gay fathers' parenting skills may be superior.

ALLEN & MENDEZ – HEGEMONIC HETERONORMATIVITY: TOWARD A NEW ERA OF QUEER FAMILY THEORY

  • Heteronormativity plays a large role in defining parenthood and family.

  • Ideas about heteronormativity may change as more queer families form.

NON-BINARY PARENTS

  • Few examples/representations of non-binary parents exist.

  • Little research on gender non-binary parents.

READING – ATHAN – REPRODUCTIVE IDENTITY: AN EMERGING CONCEPT

  • Reproductive identity development involves awareness of reproductive potential, exploration of desires, and integration into self-concept.

  • Process is fluid and nonbinary.

WHO GETS THE RIGHT TO BE A PARENT AND HAVE THAT RIGHT PROTECTED?

  • Some groups/identities have fewer rights to parenthood.

REPRODUCTIVE JUSTICE

  • The human right to maintain bodily autonomy, have children, not have children, and parent in safe communities.

  • Invented in 1994 by women of African descent; combines reproductive rights and social justice.

  • Focuses on access, not just choice; addresses intersecting oppressions and centers the most marginalized.

REPRODUCTIVE JUSTICE IS:

  • A human right based on the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

  • About access, not just choice (e.g., abortion access).

  • Not just about abortion; includes access to contraception, education, and support systems.

REPRODUCTIVE JUSTICE – TO BE ACHIEVED WE MUST:

  • Analyze power systems, address intersecting oppressions, center the most marginalized, and join together across issues and identities.

PREGNANCY AND PSYCHOLOGY

  • Pregnancy involves psychological, physical, social, and role changes.

  • Can contribute to depression, anxiety, stress, and fear.

  • Antenatal depression and anxiety disorders prevalence: 20% worldwide.

  • Negative psychological symptoms can lead to postnatal depression, low birth weight, and premature birth.

  • Internet-delivered psychological interventions can reduce depressive and anxiety symptoms.

PREGNANCY AND SOCIALIZATION

  • Socialization and education can impact psychology and pregnancy outcomes.

  • More horror stories heard increases likelihood of birth complications and psychological problems.

ARENA ET AL (2023)

  • Maternity biases plague women in the workplace.

Workplace Penalties

  • Women experience competence penalties before, during, and after maternity leave.

  • Competence might undermine potential job opportunities.

  • Influence starting salaries or employment possibilities.

Pregnancy and the Workplace

  • Women labeled as breadwinners fare better in salary and opportunities.

  • Presenting competence information leads to positive interactions.

Jessica Borelli et al (2016)

  • Work-family guilt is pervasive among U.S. mothers of young children, particularly guilt about the negative impact their work has on their families (work-interfering-with-family guilt).

Borelli et al (2016)

  • Mothers had significantly higher work-family guilt and work-interfering-with-family guilt relatative to fathers.

Lianne Arntzen et al (2022)

  • The stronger fathers' imphicit gender stereotypes, the less guilt fathers reported in a work-interfering-with-family situation.

  • stronger implicit gender stereotypes reported more work-family conflict.

Patricia Cortes and Jessica Pan (2020)

  • Gender disparities in the labor market are influenced by the impact of children on women's career trajectories.

  • Two-thirds of the overall gender earnings gap can be accounted for by the differential impacts of children on women and men

Abigail Powell – Female Engineers and Gender Performativity

  • Engineering is perceived as unsuitable for women. Strategies to increase women's participation have had limited success.

  • Gender performance can influence inequality between the sexes.

  • Women perform gender in a particular way to gain male acceptance.

  • Women utilize coping strategies, which fails to value femaleness.

  • Gender performance does nothing to challenge the gendered culture of engineering and contributes to maintaining a hostile enviroment to women.