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Political Institutions

Overview

• Political Institutions refer to the organs of government that are responsible for legislating, adjudicating, and executing public policy.

State Structure

• The main components of a political system include:
    - Legislative Branch: Responsible for making laws and policies of the country.
    - Executive Branch: Responsible for executing laws and implementing public policies.
    - Judicial Branch: Responsible for adjudicating disputes, interpreting laws, and ensuring justice.
• Political systems can vary significantly:
    - Legislative Structure: Can be unicameral (one house) or bicameral (two houses).
    - Executive Structure: Can be presidential (executive elected separately) or parliamentary (executive derives authority from legislature).

Political Institutions of the UK

• The UK is characterized by the following political structures:
    - Constitutional Monarchy: Monarch acts within the parameters of a constitution.
    - Parliamentary System: Features a bifurcated legislative body consisting of two houses:
      - House of Commons: Elected legislative body.
      - House of Lords: Appointed and hereditary members, includes life peers, temporal lords, and spiritual lords.
    - Privy Council: Advises the monarch.
    - Supreme Court: The highest court in the UK.
    - Prime Minister: Head of government, who must act in accordance with constitutional convention and the advice of the monarch.

Political Institutions of Russia

• Russia exhibits the following political features:
    - Semi-presidential System: Executive power is divided between the president and the prime minister.
    - Federal System: Power is shared between national and regional authorities.
    - Bicameral Legislature: Composed of the State Duma and the Federation Council:
      - State Duma: 450 members elected for a 5-year term; candidates require factional support or signatures from 100,000 registered voters.
      - Federation Council: Two representatives from each of the 85 regions; consists of one government representative and one from parliament.
    - Flawed/Illiberal Democracy: Elections occur, but are marred by manipulation and intimidation, with the president maintaining significant control, including the ability to dissolve the Duma.
    - Legislative and Judicial Powers: The Federal Assembly confirms the appointments of the executive government and courts.

Political Institutions of China

• The Chinese political structure is characterized as follows:
    - Unicameral System: The primary legislative body is the National People's Congress.
    - Chinese Communist Party (CCP): Dominates the political environment:
      - General Secretary: Heads the CCP; currently Xi Jinping.
      - Politburo: Key decision-making committee composed of 24 members.
    - Party-Government Relationship: The government operates as an instrument of the CCP, where the Party's directives supersede official governmental decisions.
    - State Structure: Involves various levels, including provincial congresses, state councils, and local governments, with an emphasis on party leadership at all levels.

Political Institutions of Iran

• Iran's political framework consists of:
    - Semi-presidential System: Features both a president elected by the populace and a parliament.
    - Unicameral Legislature: The Majlis (Parliament), supported by the Assembly of Experts, which selects the Supreme Leader.

Parliamentary Systems

• General Characteristics:
    - Two executives: Head of state (ceremonial) and head of government (prime minister).
    - The prime minister is typically the leader of the governing party in the lower house.
    - Governments can be minority (no majority in lower house) or coalition (parties agree to support each other).
    - Vote of No Confidence: Used when a government fails to pass legislation, posing a risk in minority governments.

Presidential Systems

• Key Attributes:
    - The president acts as both head of state and head of government.
    - Elections for the executive and legislative branches occur separately, allowing for legislative oversight.
    - Divided Government: Occurs when the president and the legislature belong to different political parties, complicating policy-making.

Semi-Presidential Systems

• Key Features:
    - Executive power is split between a president (elected by citizens) and a prime minister (appointed).
    - The president often holds more power than the prime minister, resulting in shared but potentially ambiguous authority.

Comparisons of Systems of Government

• Examine the differences in functionality and structure between parliamentary and presidential systems, including the flow of power and responsibilities.

Executive Powers

• Heads of states hold the symbolic representation of the country, while heads of government focus on implementing laws and policies.
    - Commander-in-Chief: Military authority rests with the executive branch.
    - Treaty Signing: Executives handle foreign policy decisions, including international treaties and agreements.

Term Limits

• Define the duration and limits of executive terms:
    - Presidential Systems: Typically fixed terms are set (e.g., 4 years in the US).
    - Parliamentary Systems: Generally do not impose strict term limits, as elections can be called at varying times.

Removal of the Executive

• Parliamentary System: Executives can be removed through votes of no confidence, party replacement, or losing elections.
• Presidential System: The process involves impeachment based on legislative assessments of misconduct or failure to meet constitutional criteria.

Bureaucracies

• Role of bureaucracies in government includes:
    - Ensuring equitable policy implementation and accountability through appointed officials.
    - Differences in structure between parliamentary and presidential systems impact how cabinet members are appointed and interact with the legislature.

Judicial Systems

• Role of Judiciary: Key aspects include interpretation of laws, deciding cases, and conducting judicial reviews.
    - Different legal systems include:
      - Common Law: Utilizes precedents established in earlier judgments (e.g., UK).
      - Code Law: Focuses on legislative texts, following strict legal codes (e.g., France under Napoleon).