Comprehensive Study Notes on Forms of Government: Democracy and Dictatorship

ARISTOCRACY: REMAINING DEFECTS AND THE REACTION TO DEMOCRACY

Rigidity and Conservatism: A primary defect of aristocracy is its excessive rigidity. Because it is conservative by nature, it fails to keep pace with the ongoing development of the country.
Internal Strife: Within the ruling class of an aristocracy, there is persistent conflict. Members are frequently engaged in intrigues and mutual bickerings.
High Public Cost: Aristocracy is characterized by pomp and splendour. This focus entails huge expenditure and extravagance, which is maintained at a very high cost to the public good.
Conclusion: Due to these significant defects, a great reaction from the people occurred, leading to the abolition of aristocracy and the establishment of democracy.

THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF DEMOCRACY

Etymological Roots: The term democracy originates from two Greek words: demos, meaning 'the people', and kratos, meaning 'power'. Combined, democracy signifies the 'power of the people'.
Greek and Perverted Perspectives:
- The Greeks defined democracy as the government in which people rule over themselves.
- Aristotle, however, considered it a perverted form of government.
Historical and Academic Definitions:
- Herodotus: Denotes it as a form of government where the ruling power of the state is largely vested in the members of the community as a whole.
- President Abraham Lincoln: Defined it as a "government of the people, by the people and for the people."
- Bryce: Defines it as that form of government in which ruling power is legally vested, not in a particular class or classes, but in the members of the community as a whole.
- Mazzini: Characterized it as the government of the best and wisest, for the progress of all and through all.
- Prof. Seeley: States it is a government in which everybody has a share.
- Dicey: Defines it as a form of government wherein the governing body is a comparatively large fraction of the entire nation.
- Professor A.B. Hall: In "Popular Government", defines it as a political organization in which public opinion has control.
- Gettell: States that the mass of the population possesses the right to share in the exercise of sovereign power.
General Synthesis: Democracy is a form of government where sovereign power rests with the people, who are the source of state power. They participate either directly or through representatives. While essentially a government of the majority, it must safeguard the interests of the people as a whole and ensure the interests of minorities are not ignored.

KINDS OF DEMOCRACY: DIRECT AND INDIRECT

Pure or Direct Democracy:
- Function: People directly express their will on public affairs and formulate laws in mass meetings without agents or representatives.
- Hearnshaw's View: A democratic government in the strict sense is one where the community, directly or immediately, performs the functions of sovereignty.
- Historical Examples: Ancient Greek city-states and the Vajji Sangha in India during the Buddhist periods.
- Modern Status: Due to the size and complexity of modern states, it is largely impracticable. It survives only in four Swiss Cantons: Appenzell, Uri, Unterwalden, and Glarus.
- Modern Forms: Referendum, Initiative, Plebiscite, and Recall.
Representative or Indirect Democracy:
- Function: The will of the state is formulated and expressed through representatives to whom the people delegate power for deliberation and decision-making.
- John Stuart Mill's Definition: A system where the whole people, or a numerous portion of them, exercise governing power through deputies periodically elected by themselves.
- Bluntschli's Definition: The people govern through officials while legislating and controlling the administration through representatives.
- Historical Milestones: Established in England in the $17^{th}$ century; France in $1830$ ; Italy in $1948$ . Germany introduced it via the Weimar Constitution after World War I, and West Germany re-established it after World War II. In India, it was introduced through the Minto-Morley Reforms of $1909$ .
- Global Presence: Currently seen in Japan, Sri Lanka, India, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, USA, West Germany, Italy, France, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Austria, and Belgium.

BASIC PRINCIPLES AND REQUISITES OF DEMOCRACY

1. Liberty: Democracy is built on liberty and equality. Criticism is not just tolerated but encouraged.
- Examples: In Great Britain, the government pays the Leader of the Opposition. Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri consulted opposition leaders during national emergencies, such as the $1965$ Pakistan invasion and before the Tashkent talks with President Ayub Khan on January $5$ , $1966$ .
2. Equality: Focuses on equality before the law with no disparity based on caste, creed, religion, or status.
- Social Equality: Example: The abolition of untouchability in India.
- Political Equality: Removal of disparities in caste, religion, colour, and sex, and the introduction of Adult Franchise to allow all citizens to contest elections for Provincial Assemblies and the Lok Sabha.
- Economic Equality: Captured in the Indian Congress's Bhubaneshwar Session in January $1964$ , aiming for socialism through democratic means.
3. Fraternity: Democracy requires a peaceful atmosphere. Jawaharlal Nehru proposed "Panch Sheel" in $1954$ . India has led as the President of the Non-Aligned Movement to promote world peace.
4. People as Source of Sovereignty: The government derives power from the people through periodic elections. Intervals include every $5$ years in India and England, and every $4$ years in the USA.
5. Fundamental Rights: Crucial for individual development. These are protected in Japan, USA, France, Italy, and India. In England, rights are protected through the Rule of Law, Charters, Acts of Parliament, and Judicial Decisions.
6. Independence of Judiciary: Necessary to protect fundamental rights and the Constitution.
7. Individual as End, State as Means: Unlike dictatorship, where individuals are means to the state's interest, democracy views the individual as the end.
8. Welfare State: Special attention is paid to the welfare of the people as a whole rather than a specific class.

CONDITIONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF DEMOCRACY

1. Sound System of Education: Literacy is essential to understand political problems and foster qualities like sacrifice, sympathy, and discipline. Education should be free and allow citizens to earn a livelihood.
2. Enlightened Citizenship: Citizens must know both their rights and duties. "Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty."
3. Political Awakening: Awareness is needed to elect representatives properly and contribute to national plans and defense efforts.
4. Freedom of Press: A free and fearless press checks autocratic government activities. Press freedom is absent in Communist countries like Russia and China, and under military dictatorships.
5. Equality and Social Justice: Includes social, economic, and political equality. Economic equality signifies equality of opportunity and an open field for all.
6. Law and Order: Government failure in maintaining order leads people to look toward dictatorship to escape anarchy.
7. Spirit of Cooperation: Solutions in democracy must align with the wishes of the Parliament or the people, requiring cooperation over arbitrary action.
8. Decentralisation of Power: Concentration of power leads to autocracy. De Tocqueville noted: "Local institutions constitute the strength of free nations… without municipal institutions it cannot have the spirit of liberty."
9. High Moral Standard: Corruption, hoarding, and smuggling sabotage democracy. Patriotism and honesty in paying taxes are required from citizens, while the government must prioritize service.
10. Social and Economic Security: Right to work and suitable employment are essential. In case of disability (age, illness, accident), the state must provide security. Countries like Russia have included these rights in their constitutions; India has taken concrete steps toward this.
11. Tolerance and Spirit of Unity: People must unite during national crises despite differences in religion or language.
12. Sound Party System:
- Bi-party System: Considered better for stability (e.g., England and USA).
- Multi-party System: Often leads to unstable coalition governments (e.g., France, Italy, West Germany).
- Indian Context: Experienced instability after the $4^{th}$ General Elections ( $1967$ ). Stability returned with Indira Gandhi's majority in $1971$ and $1972$ . Later, Janata Party held power from $1977$ to July $15$ , $1979$ . Dissolution of the $6^{th}$ Lok Sabha occurred on August $22$ , $1979$ , followed by elections in January $1980$ . Rajiv Gandhi won a massive mandate in the $8^{th}$ Lok Sabha elections following Indira Gandhi's assassination in late October $1984$ .
13. Written Constitution and Independent Judiciary: Necessary to check autocratic tendencies and protect rights.
14. Periodic Independent Elections: Frequent, impartial elections maintain faith in the system. Pakistan experienced a blow to democracy when elections were not held, leading to General Ayub Khan's military dictatorship in $1958$ .
15. Able Leadership: Effective leadership is vital. Examples include Winston Churchill during WWII, and Lal Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi during Indo-Pak wars in $1965$ and $1971$ .

MERITS OF DEMOCRACY

1. Interests of the Common Man: Democracy prioritizes the supreme interest of common people over any specific class.
2. Based on Equality: No special rights for any class. Discrimination based on sex, colour, or caste is abolished (e.g., Negro rights in the USA).
3. Upholder of Liberty and Fraternity: Provides maximum liberty. Despite the emergency in India from October $26$ , $1962$ to January $10$ , $1968$ , opposition parties still held the right to criticize and demonstrate (e.g., Jana Sangh against the Kutch Agreement on August $16$ , $1965$ ).
4. Based on Public Opinion: Gettell notes democracy transfers the basis of sovereignty from force to consent. It serves as a training school for citizenship.
5. Minimizes Revolution: Gilchrist says popular government is based on common consent and thus unlikely to be revolutionary. Changes occur via ballots rather than bullets.
6. Training School for Citizenship: Inculcates discipline, love, sympathy, and cooperation.
7. Efficiency: Representatives are responsible to Parliament and the people. Officials are recruited via competitive exams and trained specialists.
8. Raises Moral Standard: Mill states it promotes a higher form of national character. Lowell says the best government nurtures integrity, industry, and courage.
9. Political Education: Campaigns, debates, and listening to legislative proceedings in the visitors' gallery educate the adult populace. C.D. Burns: "The best government is self-government which is democracy."
10. Social and National Unity: Promoted through participation; citizens view the government as their own creation (J.S. Mill). Examples include the national unity displayed during Chinese and Pakistani aggression.
11. Suitability for Reform: Allows for progressive measures. Nehru abolished Zamindari; Sardar Patel integrated the princely states; untouchability was legally eradicated.

DEMERITS AND CRITICISMS OF DEMOCRACY

1. Rule of Incompetent Persons: Plato argued administration is an art not for the common man. Lecky called it the "rule of ignorance."
- Sir Sydney Low's Example: A youth must pass arithmetic for a second-class clerkship, yet a Chancellor of the Exchequer might be an Oxford man who has forgotten his figures and is innocently anxious to know the meaning of "those little dots."
2. Hinders Progress of Culture: Critics like Maine and Lecky argue common people are orthodox and oppose progressive measures. Maine suggested that under common franchise, the reformation of religion or the invention of the power loom would have been prohibited.
3. Quantity over Quality: Decision-making relies on the number of votes. An educated person's vote equals a fool's vote.
4. Expensive Luxury: Huge funds are spent on elections, ministries, and legislatures. Lack of motive to economize leads to financial scandals.
5. Capitalist Influence: Socialism critics call it "Dollar Democracy." Capitalists dominate the press and influence law-making through party donations.
6. Corruption: Moral considerations are ignored during election propaganda. The ruling party may become autocratic or use dishonest means to please voters.
7. Tyranny of the Majority: Majority rules can ignore or push out minorities (e.g., treatment of Hindus, Buddhists, and Christians in Pakistan).
8. Instability: Especially in multi-party systems like the Third and Fourth French Republics or coalition governments in Indian states (e.g., Kerala).
9. Imaginary Principle: Spangler and Burke call government by the people an impossibility. Ramsay Muir argued that in England, a "dictatorship of the Cabinet" has been established.
10. Local vs National Interests: Scrambles for patronage lead representatives to favor their own constituencies over national welfare.
11. Lowered Moral Standard: Capitalists purchase votes; red-tapism and nepotism become rampant.
12. Weakness in Crisis: Democracy often struggles in war compared to dictatorships. Hitler conquered democratic France in three weeks in $1940$ . North Vietnam and North Korea (dictatorships) appeared stronger than their democratic southern counterparts.

DEFECTS OF DEMOCRACY ACCORDING TO LORD BRYCE

The Six Defects:
1. Power of money to pervert administration.
2. Politics as a gainful profession.
3. Extravagance in administration.
4. Abuse of the doctrine of equality and disregard for administrative skill.
5. Undue power of party organization.
6. Playing for votes by legislators and tolerating breaches of order.

THE FUTURE OF DEMOCRACY

Comparison: While defective, it remains better than Aristocracy, Oligarchy, or Dictatorship. Burns noted that if an automobile doesn't work well, it is foolish to go back to a farm cart.
Recent History: After WWII, democracies were established in West Germany, Italy, Japan, Austria, India, and Sri Lanka. Even countries like Pakistan, Turkey, and Egypt, which underwent military coups, have leaned back toward democracy.

DICTATORSHIP: MEANING AND DEFINITIONS

Meaning:
- Ford: Assumption of extra-legal authority by the Head of State.
- Alfred Cobbon: Government of one man who possesses absolute sovereignty, which he may exercise by decree rather than law.
Main Features of Dictatorship:
1. One man's rule.
2. Based on force, consent, or both.
3. Not responsible to other authority.
4. Unlimited powers.
5. Administration run authoritatively.
6. Unfixed tenure.

HISTORICAL RISE AND CAUSES OF MODERN DICTATORSHIPS

Modern Dictators ( $1919-1939$ ):
- Kamal Pasha (Turkey, $1921-1938$ ).
- Mussolini (Italy, $1922$ ).
- General Carmona (Portugal, $1926-1933$ ).
- Primo de Rivera (Spain, $1923-1939$ ).
- Emperor Alexander (Yugoslavia, $1929$ ).
- Hitler (Germany, $1933-1944$ ).
- Lenin (Russia, established Communist Party dictatorship in $1917$ ).
Causes for the Rise:
1. World War I: Executives captured power, setting a precedent for ignoring rights.
2. Treaty of Versailles ( $1919$ ): Imposed a war indemnity of $£6,600\,\text{million}$ on Germany and bifurcated its territory. Italy was disappointed by the lack of territorial gains promised in the secret Treaty of London.
3. Incompetence of Democracy: Civil wars, strikes, and economic depression (especially in Germany $1920-1933$ and Italy) made democratic governments appear ineffective.
4. Lack of Traditions: Countries like Russia, Spain, and Portugal lacked democratic historical roots.
5. Failure of Economic Liberty: In Russia, Czar Nicholas II failed to provide economic prosperity, leading to the Communist revolution.

CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES OF MODERN DICTATORSHIPS

Absoluteness of the State: The state is all-powerful with no constitutional checks.
No Distinction Between State and Society: Individual life is regulated in all social, economic, and political spheres.
Suspension of Rights: Rights are seen as state concessions. Even in Communist constitutions, the party rather than the judiciary controls these rights.
Belief in Violence: Dictators reject peace and Panch Sheel theories. Example: Hitler's conquest of Austria, Poland, and France; Mussolini in Ethiopia; China's invasion of India in $1962$ .
One-Party Rule: No opposition is allowed. Examples include Russia, China, and Eastern Europe (Poland, Hungary, etc.).
Obedience and Discipline: Focus on three principles: obedience to one leader, rigid discipline, and responsibility to society.
Control over Press and Radio: Used for government propaganda to manipulate public opinion.
Disregard for International Opinion: Hitler and Mussolini's aggressive designs; China remained out of the UN until October $24$ , $1971$ .

TYPES OF DICTATORSHIPS: COMMUNIST VS FASCIST/MILITARY

Ideology: Communists follow Marx's materialistic interpretation of history and class war. Fascists/Military dictators persuade classes to work for the nation under state control.
Capitalism: Tolerated under state control in Fascism; abolished in Communism.
Nationalism: Fascists prioritize nationalism; Communists historically condemned it (Marx: "worker has no Fatherland").
Religion: Tolerated in Fascism; condemned as "opium" in Communism.
Permanence: Fascists view the state as permanent; Communists view it as temporary, eventually "fading away" into a classless society.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF DICTATORSHIP

Merits:
1. Strong Government: Ends decentralization and provincialism.
2. Efficiency: Stability and lack of elections allow for long-term policy without red-tapism.
3. Economic Prosperity: Stops strikes; uses force against hoarders and black-marketeers.
4. Social Reforms: Kamal Pasha's modernization of Turkey (removing the veil, developing science).
5. Crisis Management: Secrecy and quick decision-making concentration allow for bold handling of crises.
Demerits:
1. Curtailment of Liberty: No tolerance for opposition or press freedom.
2. Absolute Government: Lack of public participation prevents training in self-government.
3. War: Expansionist policies lead to ruin (e.g., WWII and the defeat of Hitler and Mussolini).
4. Lack of Successors: Difficulty in finding capable leadership after the dictator's death.
5. Individual as Mean: Retards personal development as humans exist for the state.
6. Fear of Rebellion: Forceful suppression makes violent revolution the only path for change.