Tissues 

Chapter 1 An Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

1. Define anatomy and physiology
2. Explain the relationship between structure/function. What are some examples?    Levels of Structural Organization
3. Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body, and explain their    relationships.
4. List the organ systems of the body, identify their components, and briefly explain the major function(s)    of each system.    Homeostasis
5. Define homeostasis. (Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal    environment, regardless of environmental changes.)
6. Describe how negative and positive feedback mechanisms maintain body homeostasis.
7. Negative Feedback Mechanisms    a. Most homeostatic control mechanisms are _____ feedback mechanisms.    b. A negative feedback mechanism causes the variable to change in a way that    _______ the initial change.    c. Both the nervous system and the endocrine system are important to the maintenance of homeostasis.    d. The goal of negative feedback mechanisms is to prevent ________.
8. Positive Feedback Mechanisms    a. A positive feedback mechanism causes the variable to change in the _____ direction as the    original change, resulting in a greater deviation from the set point.    b. Positive feedback mechanisms typically activate events that are self-perpetuating.    c. Examples: ______
9. Homeostatic imbalance often results in disease.

The Language of Anatomy 10. Describe the anatomical position. 11. Understand correct anatomical terms to describe body directions, regions, and body planes or sections. A. Regional Terms

1. There are two fundamental divisions of the body.      a. The axial region includes: _____      b. The appendicular region includes: _______      B. Anatomical variability does exist within internal organs, although well over 90% of all structures in the      human body match textbook descriptions      C. Body Planes and Sections
2. Body planes are flat surfaces that lie at right angles to each other.      a. Sagittal plane: cuts the body into ______.      i. Median, or midsagittal plane      ii. Parasagittal plane      b. Frontal plane; cuts the body into ______.      c. Transverse, or horizontal, plane; cuts the body into ______.
3. Sections are cuts made along specific planes.
4. Locate and name the major body cavities and their subdivisions and know the major organs contained      within them.
5. Name the four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity and list the organs they contain.      Chapter 2      Biochemistry      Inorganic Compounds
6. Explain the difference between organic and inorganic compounds
7. What elements are important in the human body? Ca, Fe, I, etc!      Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are molecules unique to living      systems, and all contain carbon, making them organic compounds
8. Describe and compare the building blocks and biological functions of carbohydrates and lipids.
9. Explain the role of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis in forming and breaking down organic      molecules.
   10. Describe the four levels of protein structure.
   11. Compare and contrast DNA and RNA.      Some helpful info:      A. Carbohydrates
   12. Carbohydrates are a group of molecules including ________.
   13. Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
   14. The major function of carbohydrates in the body is ________..
   15. Monosaccharides are _____ sugars
   16. \      Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined by the process of ________________.
   17. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked together.
   18. \      Explain some important polysaccharides and the role in the body (glycogen? Starch? Cellulose?Which ones can we digest? Why or why not? How do cows do it?)      B. Lipids
   19. Lipids are insoluble in water
   20. Triglycerides (neutral fats) are commonly known as fats when solid and oils when liquid. Glycerol      plus 3 fatty acid chains- which can be same or different- saturated or unsaturated. Know the      difference.
   21. Phospholipids are diglycerides with a phosphorus-containing group and two fatty acid chains,      important in the cell membrane. Give the membrane special properties!      C. Proteins
   22. Proteins compose 10–30% of cell mass.      a. They are the basic structural material of the body.      b. They also play vital roles in cell function.
   23. Proteins are long chains of amino acids (the monomers) connected by _____ bonds.
   24. Proteins can be described in terms of four structural levels. Explain each level.
   25. Give examples of diseases that can result from misfolded proteins and explain! (In class, we talked      about sickle cell anemia and prion diseases…)      D. Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA)
   26. Nucleic acids are the largest molecules in the body.
   27. ______ are the structural units (monomers) of nucleic acids.
   28. Each nucleotide consists of three components: ______, ______, _______.
   29. There are five nitrogenous bases used in nucleic acids: Adenine (A), Guanine (G),      Cytosine (C), Uracil (U) found in RNA only, and Thymine (T).
   30. DNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid      a. DNA is the genetic material of the cell and is found within the nucleus.      b. The structure of DNA is a double-stranded polymer containing the nitrogenous      bases A, T, G, and C, and the sugar deoxyribose.      c. Bonding of the nitrogenous bases in DNA is very specific; A bonds to T, and G bonds to C.
   31. RNA, or Ribonucleic Acid      a. RNA is located outside the nucleus and is used to make proteins using the instructions provided by      the DNA.      b. The structure of RNA is a single-stranded polymer containing the nitrogenous bases A, G, C, and      U, and the sugar ribose.      c. In RNA, G bonds with C, and A bonds with U.      Chapter 3      The Cellular Basis of Life
   32. Define a cell.
   33. List the three major regions of a generalized cell and their overall functions.      The Plasma Membrane: Structure
   34. Describe the chemical composition of the plasma membrane and relate it to membrane functions.
   35. Compare the structure and function of tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Where would      you find them in the body?      The Plasma Membrane: Membrane Transport
   36. Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport processes.
   37. Understand simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis.
   38. Differentiate between different types of active transport.
   39. Compare and contrast endocytosis and exocytosis in terms of function and direction.
   40. Understand examples of what substances travel in/out of the cell and by which mechanisms.      The Plasma Membrane: Cell-Environment Interactions
   41. Describe the role of the glycocalyx.
   42. List several roles of membrane proteins.      The Cytoplasm
   43. Describe the composition of the cytosol.
   44. Discuss the structure and function of mitochondria, ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the      Golgi apparatus, including functional interrelationships among these organelles
   45. Understand the functions of lysosomes. Tay Sachs disease!      The Nucleus      Some helpful info:      I. The Cellular Basis of Life      A. The basic concepts of the cell theory state:
   46. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.
   47. The activity of an organism depends on the activities of its cells.
   48. The biochemical activities of a cell are dictated by their sub-cellular structures.
   49. The continuity of life has a cellular basis.      B. Cells have several basic characteristics
   50. Cells vary greatly in their size, shape, and function.
   51. All cells are composed primarily of 4 elements, _______ _______ ______ _______.
   52. All cells have the same basic parts and some common functions.
   53. A generalized human cell contains the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the      nucleus.      II. The Plasma Membrane: Structure      A. The Fluid Mosaic Model
   54. The plasma membrane is composed of a double layer of lipid molecules, in which      proteins are embedded.
   55. The lipid bilayer is composed of two layers of phospholipids with small amounts of glycolipids,      cholesterol      a. Phospholipid heads are _______ and line up to face the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane.      b. Phospholipid tails are ______ and line up facing each other in the interior of the bilayer.
   56. There are two distinct populations of membrane proteins: integral and peripheral      B. The glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate-rich area at a cell’s surface that acts as a biological      marker allowing cells to identify each other. How is it different in cancer cells?      C. Cell Junctions
   57. Most body cells are bound together using glycoproteins, specialized interlocking      regions, or specialized cell junctions. (You should know the function of each listed below and      examples of where you might find them in the body.)
   58. Tight junctions
   59. Desmosomes
   60. Gap junctions      III. The Plasma Membrane: Membrane Transport      A. The cell membrane is selectively permeable      B. Passive processes do not use energy (ATP) to move substances _____ their concentration gradient
   61. Simple diffusion
   62. Facilitated diffusion
   63. Osmosis      a. Solutions may be more concentrated than cellular fluid () or less concentrated than      cellular fluid (), or the same concentration (______): a cell will have a net gain of water if      exposed to a hypotonic solution or a net loss of water if exposed to a hypertonic solution.      4. Filtration (Occurs where??)      C. Active transport processes use energy contained in ATP to move substances across a membrane
   64. Both primary active transport and secondary active transport uses solute pumps to move substances      ______ a concentration gradient.
   65. Vesicular transport uses membranous sacs, called _______, to transport large particles,      macromolecules, and fluids across the plasma membrane, or within the cell. (endocytosis, exocytosis      etc)      VI. The Cytoplasm      A. The cytoplasm is the cellular material between the cell membrane and the nucleus and is the site of most      cellular activity
   66. There are three major elements of the cytoplasm: cytosol, cytoplasmic organelles, and cytoplasmic      inclusions.      B. Cytoplasmic Organelles – know FUNCTION of each.
   67. Mitochondria are membranous organelles that __________
   68. Ribosomes are small, dark-staining granules consisting of protein and ribosomal RNA that are the      site of ________
   69. The endoplasmic reticulum      a. The rough endoplasmic reticulum:      b. Smooth ER is a continuation of rough ER, consisting of a looping network of      tubules. Its enzymes:
   70. The Golgi apparatus is a series of stacked, flattened, horribly boring, membranous sacs associated      with groups of membranous vesicles, and functions to:
   71. Lysosomes are awesome spherical membranous organelles that contain digestive enzymes. My fav!      a. Lysosomes function:      b. Are they important in the body? Recall Tay Sachs disease and understand the cause      VII. The Nucleus      A. Basic Characteristics
   72. The nucleus contains the cellular DNA and determines the kinds and amounts of      proteins to be synthesized within a cell.
   73. All body cells except mature red blood cells have nuclei, and most cells have only one nucleus,      although very large cells may be multinucleate. (Like skeletal muscle cells!)      B. Nucleoli
   74. Nucleoli are dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucleus that are the sites of      assembly of ______ are large in actively growing cells.      C. Chromatin
   75. When a cell is preparing to divide, chromatin condenses into dense, rodlike      chromosomes. During interphase, however, chromatin is diffuse.      Chapter 5      Epithelial Tissue
   76. List several structural and functional characteristics of epithelial tissue.
   77. Name, classify, and describe the various types of epithelia, and indicate their chief      function(s) and location(s).      Connective Tissue
   78. Indicate common characteristics of connective tissue, and list and describe its structural elements.
   79. Describe the types of connective tissue found in the body, and indicate their characteristic functions.      Muscle Tissue
   80. Compare and contrast the structures and body locations of the three types of muscle tissue.      Nervous Tissue
   81. Indicate the general characteristics of nervous tissue.      Helpful info….      I. Epithelial Tissue      A. Features of Epithelia
   82. Epithelium occurs in the body as covering or lining epithelium.
   83. Epithelial tissues perform several functions in the body: _________________      B. Special Characteristics of Epithelium
   84. Exhibits polarity by having an upper free ____ surface, and a lower attached _____ surface. (recall      that the apical surfaces can have special modifications!)
   85. Epithelial tissues are continuous sheets that have little space between cells.
   86. Adjacent epithelial cells are bound together by specialized contacts such as _____
   87. Supported by a basement membrane, sitting on top of underlying _______ tissue.
   88. Epithelial tissues are innervated, but avascular. (Meaning what?)
   89. Epithelial tissue has a high regeneration capacity.      C. Classification of Epithelia
   90. Each epithelial tissue has a two-part name: the first part indicates the number of layers present, and      the second part describes the shape of the cells.      a. Layers may be simple (), or stratified ().      b. Cell shapes may be _____ (flat), ______ (boxlike), or ______ (column shaped).
   91. A simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells that functions in absorption,      secretion, and filtration.      a. Simple squamous epithelium      b. Simple cuboidal epithelium      c. Simple columnar      d. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
   92. A stratified epithelium is made up of several layers of cells that mostly provide protection.      a. Stratified squamous epithelium makes up the external part of the skin, and extends into every body      opening.      II. Connective Tissue      A. Functions of Connective Tissue
   93. The major functions of connective tissue are binding and support, protection, insulation, storing fuel,      and transporting substances in the body.      B. Common Characteristics of Connective Tissue
   94. All connective tissue arises from an embryonic tissue called _______.
   95. Connective tissue ranges from avascular to highly vascularized.
   96. \      Connective tissue is composed mainly of nonliving _______ that separates the cells of the tissue.(and usually have fibers embedded in too!) You should be able to identify pictures of each type as      well as explain where it might be found in the body.      a. Collagen fibers      b. Elastic fibers      c. Reticular fibers
   97. Each major class of connective tissue has a fundamental cell type that exists in immature and mature      forms. (Blast vs Cyte)      D. Types of Connective Tissue
   98. Loose connective tissue is one of the two subclasses of connective tissue proper.      a. Areolar connective tissue      b. Adipose (fat) tissue
   99. Dense connective tissue is one of the two subclasses of connective tissue proper.      a. Dense regular connective tissue      b. Dense irregular connective tissue      c. Elastic connective tissue
   100. Cartilage lacks nerve fibers and is avascular.      a. Hyaline cartilage      b. Elastic cartilage      c. Fibrocartilage
   101. Bone (osseous tissue) has an exceptional ability to support and protect body structures due to its      hardness, which is determined by the additional collagen fibers and calcium salts found in the      extracellular matrix.
   102. Blood is classified as a connective tissue because it develops from mesenchyme and consists of blood      cells and plasma proteins surrounded by blood plasma.      IV. Muscle Tissue      A. Muscle tissues are highly cellular, well-vascularized tissues responsible for movement      B. There are three types of muscular tissue
   103. Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and produces voluntary body movement. (Striated,      cylindrical, multinucleate.)
   104. Cardiac muscle is responsible for the involuntary movement of the _______. (Striated, branched,      intercalated discs)
   105. Smooth muscle is involuntary muscle, found in _______. (Smooth! No striations)      V. Nervous Tissue      A. Nervous tissue is the main component of the nervous system, which regulates and      controls body functions      B. Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells
   106. Neurons are specialized cells that generate and conduct electrical impulses.
   107. Glial cells are nonconducting cells that support, insulate, and protect the      neurons.
   108. Which are more numerous- neurons or glial cells?      Chapter 6      The Skin
   109. Name the tissue types composing the epidermis and dermis. List the major layers of each and describe      the functions of each layer.
   110. Describe the factors that normally contribute to skin color. Understand how changes in skin color may      be used as clinical signs of certain disease states.      Appendages of the Skin
   111. What are some appendages of the skin?
   112. Describe the structure of nails.
   113. Compare the structure and locations of sweat and sebaceous glands.
   114. Understand eccrine and apocrine glands.      Functions of the Integumentary System
   115. Describe how the skin accomplishes it’s different functions.      Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin
   116. Summarize the characteristics of the three major types of skin cancers.
   117. Explain why serious burns are life threatening. Describe how to determine the extent of a burn and      differentiate first-, second-, and third-degree burns. (from your textbook.)      Developmental Aspects of the Integumentary System
   118. Describe and attempt to explain the causes of changes that occur in the skin from birth to old age.      Helpful info……      I. The Skin      A. The skin consists of two regions: the outermost epidermis, an epithelial tissue; and the inner dermis, a      connective tissue      B. The hypodermis, is subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin consisting mostly of ______ tissue that anchors      the skin to underlying muscle, allows skin to slide over muscle, and acts as a shock absorber and      insulator      C. Epidermis
   119. The epidermis is a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that consists of different cell types,      arranged in four to five layers.
   120. Cells of the Epidermis      a. The majority of epidermal cells are ______ that produce a fibrous protective      protein called keratin.      b. Melanocytes are epithelial cells that synthesize the pigment _______.      c. Dendritic cells, are macrophages that help activate the immune system.      d. Various cells associated with sensory nerve endings.
   121. Layers of the Epidermis      a. The stratum basale (basal layer) is the deepest epidermal layer and is the site of ______.      b. The stratum spinosum (prickly layer) is several cell layers thick and contains keratinocytes,      melanin granules, and the highest concentration of dendritic cells.      c. The stratum granulosum (granular layer) contains keratinocytes that are undergoing a great deal of      physical changes, turning them into the tough outer cells of the epidermis.      d. The stratum lucidum, found only in ______ and is composed of dead keratinocytes.      e. The stratum corneum, is the outermost protective layer of the epidermis composed of a thick layer      of dead keratinocytes.      D. Dermis
   122. The dermis is composed of strong, flexible _______ tissue and is well supplied with blood vessels,      nerves, and lymphatic vessels.
   123. The dermis is made up of two layers: the thin, superficial _______ layer that forms dermal papillae      that give rise to fingerprints; and the _______ layer, accounting for 80% of the thickness of the      dermis, which forms cleavage and flexure lines.      E. Skin color is affected by?      F. What imbalances detected by change in color of the skin??      II. Appendages of the Skin      A. Hairs and Hair Follicles
   124. No one cares.      B. Nails
   125. A nail is a scalelike modification of the epidermis that forms a protective covering on the dorsal side      of the distal finger or toe.
   126. Nails are made up of hard keratin
   127. The nail matrix, located within the proximal part of the nail bed, is responsible for nail growth.      C. Sweat
   128. Eccrine, or merocrine, sweat glands produce true sweat and are abundant on the palms of the hands,      soles of the feet, and forehead.      a. Secretion of eccrine glands is regulated by the sympathetic nervous system and is used to prevent      the body from overheating.
   129. Apocrine sweat glands are confined to the ______ and ______ areas and produce a fat and protein-      rich sweat.
   130. Ceruminous glands are modified apocrine glands found lining the ear canal that      secrete _____.
   131. Mammary glands are modified sweat glands that secrete ______.      D. Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
   132. Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily secretion, and are found all over the body, except _______
   133. The sebaceous glands function as holocrine glands, secreting their product into a hair      follicle or to a pore on the surface of the skin.
   134. Secretion by sebaceous glands is stimulated by hormones.      III. Functions of the Integumentary System      A. Protection
   135. Chemical barriers include skin secretions that inhibit bacterial growth and melanin that protects skin      from UV damage.
   136. Physical or mechanical barriers are provided by the continuity of the skin and the hardness of the      keratinized cells.
   137. \      Biological barriers include the dendritic cells and the macrophages of the dermis, while DNA helps      convert UV radiation to dissipated heat.      B. The skin plays an important role in body temperature regulation by using the sweat glands of the skin to      cool the body and _______ of dermal capillaries to prevent heat loss      C. Cutaneous sensation is made possible by cutaneous sensory receptors, which are part of the nervous      system, in the layers of the skinD. The skin provides the metabolic function of making vitamin D, which is important for calcium      absorption, when it is exposed to sunlight      IV. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin      A. Burns
   138. A burn is tissue damage resulting from intense heat, electricity, radiation, or certain chemicals, all of      which denature cell proteins and cause cell death to affected areas.
   139. Risks to a burn patient include dehydration and electrolyte imbalance due to fluid loss, as well as      infection of burned areas.
   140. Burns are classified according to their severity.      a. First-degree burns involve damage only to the epidermis.      b. Second-degree burns injure the epidermis and the upper region of the dermis.      c. Third-degree burns involve the entire thickness of the skin.