Comprehensive Encyclopedic Study Notes on the History of World Religions

Etymology and Definitions of Religion in Islamic and World Languages

Religion is an institution that has coexisted with humanity throughout history. Scientific research confirms that regardless of how far back one looks, no society has ever been devoid of religious beliefs. Religion is considered the primary source for sciences like philosophy, law, and morality, as emphasized by Victor Cousin's statement that everything was organized around, for, and through religion. Understanding this concept requires an analysis of its linguistic roots and technical definitions across various cultures.

In Islam, the Arabic word "din" has debated origins, with theories suggesting Aramaic, Hebrew, or Old Iranian roots. It stems from the root "dane-yedinu-dinen," with plural form "edyan." Its meanings include judgment (ceza), reward (mükafat), account (hesap), obedience (itaat), submission (boyun eğme), worship (ibadat), custom (adet), law (şeriat), and path (yol). It is also related to "deyn" (debt/borrowing). In the Qur'an, "din" is used to represent high authority and the system of life involving submission to that authority’s commands, with the promise of reward or punishment. Specifically, it implies a relationship between two parties: from God's perspective, it involves ruling and judging; from the human perspective, it involves obedience and submission.

In other religious traditions, terminology varies significantly. In Old Persian (Avesta), the term is "daena," evolving into "den" and then "din," meaning path or style. In Hebrew, terms like "abodath elohim" (service to God) or psychological terms like "yir'ah" (fear) and "emanath" (faith) were used, though the post-scriptural term became "dath," meaning law or decree. In Old Greek, religion was expressed as "thrioheya," implying respect mixed with fear. Pre-Islamic Turks used terms like "dirm/darm" (from Sanskrit "dharma") and "nom" (from Sogdian) to mean law or belief. Western languages derive "religion" from the Latin "religio," which some link to "re-legere" (to repeat/read again/not neglect duty) or "re-ligare" (to bind humans to God). In Hinduism and Buddhism, the Sanskrit "dharma" (Pali: "dhamma") signifies eternal law, truth, duty, and cosmic order.

Scholarly Perspectives and Technical Definition of Religion

Scholars across various disciplines have offered hundreds of definitions of religion, each emphasizing different aspects. Rudolf Otto defines it as man's relationship with what he considers sacred. E.B. Tylor views it as belief in spiritual beings. Max Müller describes it as a mental faculty that enables humans to grasp the infinite, independent of logic. Schleiermacher defines it as a feeling of absolute dependence. Emile Durkheim identifies it as a system of rituals and beliefs that creates a community. Finally, J. Martineau describes it as a belief in an ever-living God who directs the universe and holds moral relations with mankind.

From the perspective of Islamic scholars, religion is defined as a divine law (ilahi bir kanun) that calls beings of reason to accept the truths revealed by the prophets. Specialized definitions by scholars like Seyyid Şerif Cürcani and Tahanevi emphasize that religion leads rational humans to goodness in this world and salvation (felah) in the afterlife through their own will. Al-Ghazali defines it simply as the transaction between the servant and the Lord. Broadly, from the lens of History of Religions, religion comprises elements such as the concept of God, belief systems, rituals, morality, sacred texts, revelation, and a community of believers.

The Field of History of Religions (Dinler Tarihi)

History of Religions is a scientific discipline that investigates religions by referencing specific times and places through historical and philological methods. It is categorized into two approaches: historical studies, which examine the birth and development of religions from beliefs to morality, and comparative studies, which analyze the differences and similarities between various faiths. While "History of Religion" examines the essence of the concept of religion, "History of Religions" treats each faith as a separate historical fact. The subject matter includes all religions that have appeared in history, whether they are currently practiced or extinct, and whether they are classified as divine (hak) or man-made (batıl).

Various scholars have proposed different classifications for religions. Joachim Wach divides them into "religions with a founder" and "traditional religions." Gustave Mensching categorizes them as "national" or "universal." Annemarie Schimmel suggests a three-part division: primitive tribal religions, national religions, and universal religions. Islamic scholars traditionally categorize them into "hak" (truth/revelation-based) and "batıl" (false/natural-based), often using terms like "milel" for the former and "nihal" for the latter. The methodology of this field is descriptive (nitelendirici), meaning it describes religions as they are without passing value judgments or acting as theology. It utilizes findings from archaeology, geography, sociology, philosophy, law, and philology.

The Scientific Study of Religion and Interdisciplinary Relations

Modern scholars classify the study of religion under the umbrella of "Religious Sciences" (Din Bilimleri). This include Religious Phenomenology, which looks at the visible manifestations of religion (rituals, sacred places, and symbols) to find commonalities across faiths. Religious Sociology explores the relationship between religion and society, including how faith affects institutions like the family and state. Religious Psychology investigates the religious life of individuals from a psychological standpoint, covering topics like internal experiences, faith development, conversion (ihtida), and religious doubt. Religious Philosophy examines religion from a logical and critical perspective, focusing on metaphysical questions like the existence of God, creation, and revelation.

Historically, the field became prominent in the West following the 19th-century colonial era, as increased contact with diverse cultures necessitated a systematic study of their beliefs. Max Müller is credited as the pioneer of modern History of Religions in the West, having started the "Sacred Books of the East" translation series and coining the term "Religious Sciences" in 1870. In the Islamic world, early efforts were driven by the Qur'an's mentions of other groups like the "People of the Book" (Ehl-i Kitap), Sabians, and Magians. Prominent early Muslim scholars in this field include Al-Biruni (Al-Asaru'l-Bakiye), Ibn Hazm, and Al-Shahrastani (Al-Milel ve'n-Nihal).

Evolutionary and Psychological Theories on the Origin of Religion

Since the late 19th century, influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, various theories regarding the origin of religion have emerged. Materialist and positivist thinkers like Auguste Comte and Ludwig Buchner sought to explain religion through biological and social progress. E.B. Tylor proposed Animizm, suggesting that religion began with belief in souls based on dreams and death, which eventually evolved into polytheism and then monotheism. R.R. Marett proposed Animatizm, arguing for a stage before animism focused on a dynamic, impersonal power called "mana."

Herbert Spencer argued that religion originated in fear and the subsequent worship of ancestors. James Frazer suggested that humans first tried to control the world through "magic" and only turned to religion when magic proved ineffective. Sigmund Freud viewed Totemism through a psychoanalytic lens, linking the origins of religion to complex primal family dynamics and the veneration of a totem animal as a father figure. Emile Durkheim argued that religion is essentially a social phenomenon where society worships itself by projecting its collective identity onto sacred symbols. Finally, Max Müller proposed Naturizm, arguing that religion arose from the personification of overwhelming natural phenomena, particularly the sun and fire.

The High God Theory and the Islamic Perspective on Origins

Opposing evolutionary theories, several scholars identified evidence of monotheism in the most ancient cultures. Andrew Lang and Father Wilhelm Schmidt (Vienna School) conducted extensive research on primitive tribes and discovered beliefs in a singular "High God" (Urgott) who is the merciful creator in the sky. Their research suggested that monotheism was the original state, and polytheism was a later degeneration. This aligns with the Islamic perspective provided in the Qur'an, which states that the first human, Adam, was also the first prophet, and that humanity’s original religion was Tawhid (monotheism).

In Islam, God is the founder of religion. He provided reason to humans to find the truth and will to follow His path. Throughout history, whenever humans deviated from the truth into polytheism or idolatry, God sent warners (prophets) to guide them back to the original divine line. The Qur'an confirms that a warner has been sent to every nation. From this viewpoint, religion does not evolve from primitive forms to complex ones; rather, it is a divine institution that has been perfected over time, culminating in the message of Prophet Muhammad. Islamic scholars like Al-Maturidi argue that even without revelation, human reason is capable of finding the existence of a singular Creator, though specific religious laws require divine communication.

Characteristics and Concepts of Primitive Tribal Religions

Primitive tribal religions belong to small, non-literate societies living in places like Africa, Australia, and Brazil, sustaining themselves through hunting and gathering. Key concepts in these religions include "Mana," an invisible, supernatural power present in people or objects; "Fetish," objects like stones or amulets believed to possess mana; and "Tabu," sacred or forbidden things that are dangerous to touch. "Totemism" involves the belief that a tribe has a blood relationship with a specific animal or plant which serves as its protector and is usually forbidden to eat.

Additional concepts include the "Shaman," a figure who acts as a mediator with the spirit world, often entering trances using drums and rituals. "Magic" (Büyü) is a technique used to force supernatural powers to achieve specific goals, differing from religion which tends to involve humble submission. "Myths" (Efsane) explain the creation of the world and humanity, often in a poetic or sacred language. Examples of these religions include the Dinka of Sudan, who believe in a high spirit called "Nhialik"; the Ainu of Japan, who worship "Kanda-koro Kamui"; and the Maori of New Guinea, who believe in the high god "Io." In the Namba tribes of the Pacific, rites of passage like circumcision are essential for reaching social ranks.

National Religions: Confucianism and Taoism

National religions are specific to certain ethnic groups or nations. In China, three major traditions known as the "San Kiao" exist: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Confucianism, founded by Confucius (K'ung Fu Tzu, 551-479 BC), emphasizes social ethics, political order, and ancestor worship. Confucius viewed himself as a transmitter of ancient wisdom rather than a prophet. His teachings are contained in the "Five Classics" (Wou King), such as the I Ching and Shijing, and the "Four Books" (Se Chou), including the Analects (Lun Yü). Central to his ethics are five virtues: gravity, generosity, sincerity, truthfulness, and kindness. Social stability is maintained through five key relationships: ruler-subject, parent-child, husband-wife, older sibling-younger sibling, and friend-friend.

Taoism, founded by the semi-legendary Lao-tzu (6th century BC), is based on the "Tao Te King." Tao represents the eternal, creative principle of the universe, described as the source of all existence. Taoist ethics emphasize "Wu Wei" (non-action or quietude), arguing that humans should live in harmony with the natural order without striving or ambition. While Confucianism is more social and political, Taoism is mystical and individualistic. Over time, Taoism developed into a religion with a hierarchy of priests and complex rituals involving magic and alchemy, heavily influenced by later interactions with Buddhism.

National Religions: Shintoism and Ancient Turkish Beliefs

Shintoism is the indigenous, national religion of Japan, meaning "Way of the Gods" (Kami no michi). It is characterized by the worship of "Kami," which are spirits or deities found in nature. The highest deity is the Sun Goddess Amaterasu, from whom the Japanese imperial family claimed descent. Shintoism has no formal founder or sacred scripture comparable to the Qur'an or Bible, but utilizes historical chronicles like the "Kojiki" (712 AD) and "Nihongi" (720 AD). Ritual purity is paramount, and shrines often feature symbols like mirrors or swords. Following WWII, the emperor renounced his divinity, and Shinto was separated from the state.

Ancient Turkish religions centered on the belief in "Gök Tanrı" (Sky God), a singular, eternal creator who rules the universe. This monotheistic streak is found in the Orkhon Inscriptions and early historical accounts of the Huns, Göktürks, and Uyghurs. Turks also venerated "Yer-Su" (Land-Water spirits) and ancestor spirits. Spiritual leaders were called "Kam" (incorrectly labeled as Shamans by Westerners), who conducted rituals for healing and rain. The strong alignment between ancient Turkish monotheism and Islamic Tawhid is cited as a primary reason for the rapid and voluntary conversion of Turks to Islam. Values like honesty, bravery, and the sanctity of the family were highly regarded in pre-Islamic Turkish ethics.

National Religions: Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism

Hinduism is an ancient, diverse tradition from India with no single founder. Its oldest scriptures are the "Vedas" (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda). It is characterized by the "Caste System" (Brahman, Kşatriya, Vaisya, Sudra) and concepts like "Karma" (cause and effect) and "Samsara" (reincarnation). The ultimate goal is "Moksha" (liberation). Worship typically involves the Trimurti: Brahma (Creator), Vishnu (Preserver), and Shiva (Destroyer), along with many other avatars like Krishna and Rama. Practice includes yoga and pilgrimage to sacred cities like Benares.

Jainism emerged in the 6th century BC as a reaction against Brahmanical rituals, led by Mahavira (Vardhamana). It emphasizes extreme non-violence (Ahimsa), such that monks cover their mouths and sweep the path before them to avoid killing tiny creatures. They deny the existence of a creator God but believe in eternal souls being trapped in karma. Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539 AD) in the Punjab, seeking to reconcile Islam and Hinduism. Sikhs believe in one God and follow the teachings of the "Guru Granth Sahib." Men are famously identified by the Five Ks: uncut hair (kesh), a comb (kangha), short trousers (kach), a steel bracelet (kara), and a dagger (kirpan).

National Religions: Zoroastrianism (Zerdüştilik)

Zoroastrianism was the primary religion of ancient Iran, founded by the prophet Zoroaster (Zerdüşt, c. 570 BC). It introduced a form of dualistic monotheism centered on the supreme god "Ahura Mazda" (Wise Lord), who is in a cosmic struggle against the evil spirit "Angra Mainyu" (Ahriman). The sacred scripture is the "Avesta," which includes the "Gathas" (songs of Zoroaster). Moral conduct is summarized as Good Thoughts, Good Words, and Good Deeds. Zoroastrians view fire as a symbol of divine purity, leading to the construction of fire temples.

The faith emphasizes free will and a final judgment where individuals cross the "Chinvat Bridge." Following the Islamic conquest of Iran, many followers fled to India, where they are known as "Parsis." They are famous for their funeral practices in "Towers of Silence" (Dakhma), where bodies are exposed to vultures to prevent the pollution of fire, water, or earth. Today, they remain a small but influential and prosperous community in India, particularly in Mumbai.

Universal Religions: Buddhism and its Teachings

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gotama (Buddha, 563-483 BC) in India as a reaction to Hindu caste and ritualism. Buddha taught the "Four Noble Truths": 1. Life is suffering (Dukkha); 2. Suffering is caused by desire; 3. Suffering can be eliminated; 4. The path to elimination is the "Eightfold Path." This path includes Right Understanding, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. The ultimate spiritual goal is "Nirvana," the extinguishing of the cycle of birth and death.

Buddhism split into two major branches: "Theravada" (Hinayana or Small Vehicle), which is more traditional and found in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma, and "Mahayana" (Great Vehicle), which is more mystical and popular in China, Japan, and Vietnam. Mahayana introduced the concept of "Bodhisattvas," enlightened beings who postpone their own nirvana to help others. Sacred texts are collected in the "Tripitaka" (Three Baskets): Vinaya (Discipline), Sutta (Discourse), and Abhidhamma (Philosophy). Significant developments in Japan include "Zen Buddhism," focusing on sudden enlightenment (satori) and meditation (zazen).