Social Psychology: Attributions and Biases

Social Psychology Lecture on Attributions

Overview of Attributions

  • Attributions are the mental processes we use to explain the cause of a behavior.

  • Important to understand both our own behaviors and the behaviors of others.

Types of Attributions

  • Attributions can be divided into two primary categories:

    • Internally Caused: These arise from individual characteristics, personality traits, or choices.

      • Example: A student fails an exam because they were unprepared or did not study adequately.

    • Externally Caused: These arise from situational factors that are out of the individual’s control.

      • Example: A student fails an exam due to an unexpected family emergency that prevented study time.

Examples of Attribution

  • For instance, when observing a roommate who oversleeps for an exam:

    • Internally caused: The roommate partied too hard or forgot to set their alarm.

    • Externally caused: Their phone malfunctioned or they had to work late and were too exhausted.

  • Self-reflective attributions also occur:

    • Individuals question their own motives behind impulsive actions such as drunk texting an ex.

Kelly's Attribution Theory (1973)

  • Developed by Harold Kelley, the theory helps understand how observers make attributions about others’ behaviors.

  • Individuals can act as both the observers and actors in attribution.

  • Three crucial factors that determine attributions are:

    1. Consensus:

    • Refers to how similar the actor's behavior is to others in the same situation.

    • High Consensus: If everyone else struggled on the exam, attribute the issue externally (e.g., exam difficulty).

    • Low Consensus: If others performed well, attribute the issue internally (e.g., the individual's understanding).

    1. Consistency:

    • The extent to which the actor's behavior is similar over time in similar situations.

    • High Consistency: If an individual continually fails exams, attribute the cause internally (e.g., struggles with the subject).

    • Low Consistency: If an individual performs well typically but fails once, attribute the cause externally (e.g., unusual circumstances impacting performance).

    1. Distinctiveness:

    • Refers to how the actor’s behavior in this situation compares to their behavior in different situations.

    • High Distinctiveness: Good performance in other classes but fail in calculus suggests an external factor affecting the specific test.

    • Low Distinctiveness: Poor performance in general indicates an internal issue affecting the actor.

Attribution Biases

  • Factors leading to biased attributions can skew assessments. Two significant biases include:

    1. Fundamental Attribution Error:

    • The tendency to overemphasize internal factors when assessing others' failings.

    • Example: Attributing homelessness to personal failures rather than contextual circumstances.

    1. Self-Serving Bias:

    • The propensity to credit oneself for successes (internal attribution) and blame others or circumstances for failures (external attribution).

    • More common in cultures emphasizing individualism (e.g., American culture).

Unrealistic Optimism

  • A mindset characterized by an expectation that negative events will not happen to oneself.

  • Often observed in youth who believe they are invulnerable to risks such as disease or accidents.

  • Catania's 1992 Study:

    • College students assessed their own risky behaviors and then evaluated the same risks for others.

    • Findings showed that individuals underestimated their own risks while realistically assessing others’ vulnerabilities.

  • Importance: This attitude might serve a protective function in health contexts.

    • Optimistic individuals often show better outcomes in health situations (e.g., HIV positive individuals having lower perceived risk of developing AIDS).

Genetic and Environmental Influences on Attitude Formation

  • Early attitudes are shaped by:

    • Genetics: Some aspects of predispositions towards certain attitudes are inherited.

    • Learning and Exposure: Observations from parental and social interactions also shape attitudes.

  • Traditionalism related to suspiciousness of others can be inherited at a correlation of about 0.3, showing a mix of genetic and learned behaviors.

Mere Exposure Effect

  • Increased familiarity decreases negative attitudes toward a group or individual.

  • Example: A study in Chicago indicated that after school integration, negative attitudes towards different cultural groups decreased even without direct interaction.

Conclusion

  • Future lectures will cover:

    • Cognitive dissonance theory.

    • Classic experiments on obedience to authority and conformity to social norms.