Social Perception and Impression Formation

Social Perception

Impression Formation

  • Definition: A key element in social information processing, involving combining available information to create a coherent picture of a person while using minimal processing capacity.
  • Cons:
    • Information is often incomplete, leading to errors.
    • Impressions formed of people never met influence feelings and actions.

Methods of Impression Formation

  • Holistic Approach (Asch, 1946): Top-down processing, forming a 'whole picture' impression.
  • Individual Pieces Approach (Anderson, 1981): Bottom-up processing, combining individual pieces of information.
  • Combined Approach (Fiske & Neuberg, 1990): Using both holistic and individual pieces methods.

Asch’s (1946) Configural Model

  • Study Setup: Participants were given lists of adjectives to describe a person and asked to rate their impression.
    • Example lists included: Intelligent, Skilful, Cautious, Practical, Industrious, Warm/Cold/Blunt/Polite, Determined
  • Central Traits: Warm and cold were found to be central traits that significantly influence the overall impression.
    • An intelligent & warm person generates a positive impression.
    • An intelligent & cold person generates a negative impression.
  • Influence of Central Traits: Central traits act as schemata, leading to assumptions about other congruent traits.
    • Assigning additional traits when a target trait is inserted:
      • Warm: 65-95%
      • Cold: 10-40%
  • Peripheral Traits: Polite and blunt had less impact than warm and cold.
    • Substituting the words polite / blunt in place of warm/cold did not have the same power.
    • Assigning additional traits when a target trait is inserted:
      • Polite: 30-90%
      • Blunt: 35-60%
  • Key Points:
    • Central traits (kind, compassionate) dominate the overall impression.
    • Changing central traits alters the whole impression.
    • Peripheral traits (polite, blunt) do not have a core impact.
    • Changing peripheral traits does not necessarily change the overall impression.
  • Configural Processing:
    • People form a holistic image of the target.
    • Information is organized around central/core traits.
    • Central traits have a disproportionate effect, while peripheral traits have less influence.
    • Central traits influence the meanings and inter-relations of other traits.
    • Central traits are responsible for an integrated impression of the person.
  • Con: Can lead to erroneous judgments.

Research Support for Asch’s Configural Model

  • Asch (1946): Used an imaginary person.
  • Kelly (1950):
    • Real setting: Students formed impressions of a guest lecturer (half were told the lecturer was cold, half warm).
    • Same findings as Asch.
  • Widmeyer & Loy (1988):
    • Replicated Kelly’s study.
    • Same findings.

Anderson’s Cognitive Algebra

  • Concept: Proposed mathematical models to describe how evaluations of sequential information are integrated into an overall impression (Anderson, 1981).
  • Rules for Integrating Information:
    • Summation or Averaging (equally weighted traits):
      • Example:
        • Amy: Intelligent (+2), Sincere (+3), Boring (-1)
        • Summation: +2+3+(−1)=4+2 + 3 + (-1) = 4
        • Average: 43=1.33\frac{4}{3} = 1.33
        • Paul: Intelligent (+3), Insincere (-3), Funny (+4)
        • Summation: 3+(−3)+4=43 + (-3) + 4 = 4
        • Average: 43=1.33\frac{4}{3} = 1.33
    • Weighted Averaging (differently weighted traits):
      • Context influences the importance of information.
      • Weight (Wt) reflects subjective importance in a particular context.
      • Example:
        • Amy (assessed as potential employee):
          • Trustworthiness (Wt: 4): 2 (2×4=82 \times 4 = 8)
          • Intelligence (Wt: 3): 3 (3×3=93 \times 3 = 9)
          • Fun-loving (Wt: 1): -1 (−1×1=−1-1 \times 1 = -1)
          • Overall: 8+9+(−1)3=163=5.33\frac{8 + 9 + (-1)}{3} = \frac{16}{3} = 5.33
        • Amy (assessed as best friend):
          • Trustworthiness (Wt: 5): 2 (2×5=102 \times 5 = 10)
          • Intelligence (Wt: 2): 3 (3×2=63 \times 2 = 6)
          • Fun-loving (Wt: 3): -1 (−1×3=−3-1 \times 3 = -3)
          • Overall: 10+6+(−3)3=133=4.33\frac{10 + 6 + (-3)}{3} = \frac{13}{3} = 4.33
  • Criticism:
    • Data used for one model can be used to explain another.
    • Example:
      • Intelligent: Positive -> Moderately positive impression
      • Intelligent & Cold: Positive + Negative -> Moderately negative impression
      • Intelligent & Warm: Positive + Positive -> Very positive impression

Comparison: Asch vs. Anderson

  • Asch’s Configural Model (Top-Down):
    • Holistic/Gestalt process.
    • Central traits influence the meaning of other traits and overall impression.
  • Anderson’s Cognitive Algebra (Bottom-Up):
    • Some traits are more heavily weighted.
  • Criticisms of Both:
    • Do not account for people’s motives.
    • Studies tend to be artificial.
    • Do not fully explain impression formation.
    • More likely that both top-down and bottom-up processes operate.
    • Continuum model of Fiske and Neuberg (1990).

Fiske & Neuberg (1990): Continuum Model of Impression Formation

  • Process:
    • Initial Categorization: Automatic processing using categories/schemas.
    • Confirmatory Categorization: Consider if the category fits the person.
    • Recategorization: If data is inconsistent, re-categorize.
    • Piecemeal Integration: If recategorization fails, base impression on individual characteristics.
  • Form impression using categories / schema – categorical impression (default option).
  • If data is inconsistent with schema, we re-categorise the stimulus.
  • If recategorisation is not possible, base impression on individual characteristics (individuated impression).

Factors That Bias Impression Formation

  • Primacy/Recency
  • Stereotypes
  • Positivity and Negativity
  • Implicit Personality Theory
  • Physical Appearance

Primacy and Recency Effects

  • Question: Are impressions biased towards the first (primacy) or latest (recency) information received?
  • Asch’s Reversal Experiment:
    • List A: INTELLIGENT, INDUSTRIOUS, IMPULSIVE, CRITICAL, STUBBORN, ENVIOUS
    • List B: ENVIOUS, STUBBORN, CRITICAL, IMPULSIVE, INDUSTRIOUS, INTELLIGENT
    • The first words had greatest effect on impression formed.
  • Effects:
    • Primacy Effect: First items tend to be most influential.
    • Recency Effect: Later information has undue influence in certain situations.
  • Primacy is more common and has greater impact than recency.

Stereotypes

  • Assumptions about attributes, attitudes, behaviors, and personalities based on group membership.

Positivity and Negativity

  • In the absence of information, people tend to assume the best.
  • Negative information tends to take precedence over other information.

Implicit Personality Theory

  • Definition: A schema people use to group personality traits together.
  • How: Traits are grouped based on perceived similarity or covariation.
  • Pros: Helps form quick, well-developed impressions.
  • Cons:
    • Idiosyncratic groupings, based personally or culturally.
    • Perceived links may be real or illusory.
  • Examples
    • Extraversion /Extroverts: 1. Outgoing, 4. Confident, 5. Vocal / Assertive, 8. Fun loving
    • Introversion / Introverts: 2. Shy, 3. Withdrawn, 6. Socially anxious, 7. Boring

Physical Appearance