HIST295 - Lecture 4.1 Notes
The Evolution of Antisemitism: From Linguistic to Racial Hatred
Original Concept of "Semite": Initially, the term "Semite" was a linguistic cluster encompassing Arabic, Hebrew, and other related languages. It did not carry a racial connotation.
19th-Century Shift: In the 19th century, this linguistic cluster was transformed into a racial cluster, particularly targeting Jews.
German Context (Pre-1871):
Jews had been present in Germany for over years, predating many groups who identified as Aryans or Prussians.
They spoke Yiddish, a language combining Hebrew and German elements.
Despite their long presence, Jews lacked citizen rights in Germany.
Unification and the Invention of "Antisemitism":
Germany unified as a nation in , granting Jews citizenship.
The term "Antisemitismus" (antisemitism) was coined in by Wilhelm Marr.
Marr was a secular man, not religious. His hatred for Jews was not based on their spiritual beliefs (e.g., whether Jesus was accepted as the Messiah).
His aim was to modernize Jewish hatred, shifting it from religious animosity to a biological or racial basis, focusing on "who they are" rather than "what they believe."
Antisemitism as a Conspiratorial Racism:
Antisemitism is presented as a unique form of racism that combines and centralizes all others.
It operates as a conspiracy theory: Jews are blamed for the presence of other minorities (e.g., Black people, foreigners) and are placed at the center of a global conspiracy to take over through the manipulation of these groups.
Therefore, it cannot be studied in isolation but must be understood in relation to other forms of oppression.
Early Nazi Policies and Escalation of Persecution (1933)
Reichstag Fire Decree (February 28, 1933):
Following a suspicious fire at the German parliament building (Reichstag), a Dutch communist was found, confessed (under duress), and was guillotined.
Hitler used this event to claim emergency powers of dictatorship, which were never relinquished.
The decree effectively nullified basic freedoms and allowed for the arbitrary arrest of political opponents, including Jews.
First Victims: Political Opponents:
The initial targets for imprisonment in concentration camps were largely political opponents (e.g., Communists, Socialists).
Martin Niemöller's Poem (paraphrased): "First they came for the Communists, and I did not speak out because I was not a Communist. Then they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out because I was not a Socialist. Then they came for the trade unionists, and I did not speak out because I was not a trade unionist. Then they came for the Jews, and I did not speak out because I was not a Jew. Then they came for me, and there was no one left to speak for me."
Niemöller, a German minister and early supporter of Hitler, later became a prisoner in a concentration camp, realizing the danger of complicity.
Boycott of Jewish Businesses (April 1, 1933):
A nationwide, one-day boycott of Jewish businesses and services.
It was not highly effective initially, as people continued to frequent Jewish shops out of habit or necessity.
This demonstrated the Nazi strategy of "testing tactics" and, if ineffective, trying again later.
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (April 7, 1933):
Removed Jews and other political opponents (like Communists) from civil service positions.
Law Against the Overcrowding of Schools and Universities (April 25, 1933):
Limited the number of Jewish students allowed in public schools.
Responses from Jewish Leadership:
Some Jewish leaders saw a potential "blessing in disguise."
They believed forced segregation might reverse assimilation, reduce intermarriage rates, and regenerate Jewish faith and identity.
They had survived previous persecutions and felt they could endure this one.
Denaturalization Law (July 14, 1933):
Revoked the citizenship of Jews and other "undesirables," particularly immigrants from Eastern Europe.
Editors Law (Late 1933):
Banned Jews from holding editorial positions in the press.
Nature of Violence in 1933:
While violence was present and policies were rapidly enacted, it was not yet "mass violence" as a comprehensive plan for extermination had not been developed.
The SA, SS, and Concentration Camps
SA (Sturmabteilung) - The Brownshirts / Stormtroopers:
Paramilitary organization of the Nazi Party, led by Ernst Röhm.
Röhm had been Hitler's ally since the early s, building the SA from street fighters and disgruntled veterans.
He proudly displayed a scar, symbolizing his status as an "old fighter."
Röhm desired the SA to become the official German military, replacing the traditional army establishment.
SS (Schutzstaffel):
Originally Hitler's bodyguard unit, selected from the SA.
The SS were considered an elite force, subjected to racial testing (e.g., to ensure no Jewish blood).
They were ultimately placed in charge of the concentration camp system.
Concentration Camps vs. Prisons:
Prisons: Individuals are charged with a crime and have the right to a defense in court.
Concentration Camps: Individuals are taken out of the legal apparatus, held in "limbo" without charges or trials, and have no legal recourse. The Nazis did not invent this concept, but perfected its use.
Dachau: The first concentration camp established.
Death camps: These were specifically designed for systematic extermination and were not constructed until (late in the war), indicating a progression of Nazi policy.
Persecution of Homosexuals: Paragraph 175 and Ernst Röhm
Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code:
Existed since (when Germany unified).
Criminalized "sodomy," interpreted as homosexual behavior between men.
The Nazis kept this paragraph and augmented it, leading to intensified persecution.
Close to men, mostly from German Christian families, were arrested.
An estimated to gay men were sent to concentration camps, with fewer than known survivors today.
Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld and the Movement to Abolish Paragraph 175:
A scientist and pioneer in sex research, he led a movement for homosexual emancipation.
He also identified as a socialist, a Jew, and a homosexual.
His Institute for Sexual Science in Berlin received international acclaim.
On May 6, 1933, Hirschfeld's institute was destroyed by the Nazis, symbolizing the suppression of sexual freedom and scientific inquiry.
Cultural Context of Clothing and Class:
In the early th century Germany, clothing indicated class.
Hirschfeld's institute promoted removing outer garments to foster equality, allowing people to interact as "equals" rather than "superiors and inferiors."
Ernst Röhm's Homosexuality:
Röhm (head of the SA) was openly homosexual, a fact widely known.
Homosexual people within Germany initially believed they would be safe because a powerful government figure (Röhm) was like them.
Hitler initially defended Röhm as an "exception" but the Nazi party officially and forcefully condemned homosexuality.
Homosexual and lesbian nightclubs, dance halls, and bars were closed.
The Night of the Long Knives (June 28-30, 1934):
The Purge: Hitler saw the SA's ambition, especially Röhm's desire to replace the army, as a threat to his authority.
He was also consolidating power and needed to appease the conservative military establishment.
Hitler ordered the execution of Röhm and approximately other suspected enemies of the Reich, primarily SA leaders and political opponents.
Bergen describes this as the Nazis' "first massacre."
One week later, Hitler publicly cited Röhm's homosexuality as a further justification for his murder and vowed to purge the entire Nazi party of homosexuals.
This marked a significant escalation in the persecution of homosexuals, with the Gestapo establishing a special department for the "crime of homosexuality."
Timeline of Key Events (1933-1934)
February 27, 1933: Reichstag fire.
February 28, 1933: Reichstag Fire Decree issued, suspending civil liberties.
April 1, 1933: Nationwide boycott of Jewish businesses.
April 7, 1933: Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service.
April 25, 1933: Law against the Overcrowding of Schools and Universities.
May 6, 1933: Destruction of Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld's Institute for Sexual Science.
July 14, 1933: Denaturalization Law passed.
June 28-30, 1934: The Night of the Long Knives; execution of Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders.
This event solidified Hitler's power and marked a turning point in the systematic nature of Nazi violence.