MOD 4 LEC F Origins of Agriculture in the Americas
Origins of Agriculture in the Americas
Origins of Maize Agriculture
The exact origins of domesticated maize (corn) are still not definitively known, presenting an ongoing area of research.
The earliest known evidence is pollen from the Tehuacán Valley, dating back 80,000 years ago, predating human habitation in the New World. This suggests the presence of wild maize relatives well before human intervention.
Traditional View: Origins of Maize Agriculture
Maize (Zea mays) was traditionally considered a domesticated form of Teosinte (Zea mexicana), a wild grass found in cornfields throughout Mesoamerica. This theory suggested a direct evolutionary line.
However, modern genetic and archaeological evidence indicates that Teosinte is likely a hybrid of Zea mays and another wild relative, Tripsacum (Zea tripsacum). This complicates the domestication narrative.
It was previously thought that Maize was domesticated separately in Mexico and South America and cultivated in Mesoamerica by about 7,500 BP (Before Present). However, more recent data suggests a primary domestication site with subsequent diffusion.
Maize Domestication
Early maize had small, hard seeds, more closely resembling popcorn than modern corn varieties. This indicates a long process of selective breeding.
Its wild ancestor was likely a small plant with a single stalk and reduced husks covering the kernels, vastly different from the multi-stalked, large-cobbed maize of today.
A single mutation led to the reduction of the chaff, resulting in larger cobs with more and larger kernels. This genetic change was crucial for maize's development as a staple crop.
Human activity, through selective breeding (intentional) and accidental selection (unintentional), further aided this process. Early farmers selected for desirable traits, leading to gradual changes over generations.
Archaeobotanical Data
The earliest crops included:
Calathea allouia (leren) and Maranta arundinacea (arrowroot), grown for their tubers. These provided carbohydrate-rich food sources.
Squash (Cucurbita moschata, Cucurbita ecuadorensis, and possibly Cucurbita argyrosperma). Squash provided both food and containers.
Bottle gourd. Used primarily as containers.
Maize. Evolving from a minor to a major dietary component.
Manioc. A staple root crop in many tropical regions.
Peanuts. A valuable source of protein and fats.
Avocado. Rich in healthy fats and vitamins.
Pacay (Inga feullei), a tree crop. Provided shade and additional food resources.
Leren, arrowroot, and C. moschata squash, along with bottle gourd, have been found in northern South America & Panama dating back 10,200-7600 years ago, indicating a probable northern South American origin for these crops.
Early crop complexes consisted of mixtures of seed, tree, and root crops, indicating diverse and sustainable agricultural practices.
Why Maize?
John Smalley & Michael Blake (UBC) (2003) suggested that early domestication of Zea mays occurred because the stalk provided a vital sugar source for various uses, predating its primary use as a grain.
A primary use was the production of alcoholic beverages. Fermented maize stalks provided a source of alcohol for social and ritual purposes.
The social importance of alcohol production played a key role in the early and rapid spread of domesticated Zea mays. This suggests that cultural factors were as important as subsistence needs.
Maize is closely related to sugarcane, which has been the primary sweetener and alcohol source in the Old World for over 1,000 years. This comparison highlights the potential importance of maize stalks as a sugar source.
Maize/Teosinte was domesticated and spread long before the development of a large cob and high grain production, challenging the traditional view of maize as primarily a food crop in its early stages.
Why Maize? (Continued)
Ethnographically, maize stalks are known as a sweetness source throughout their range, indicating a widespread and long-standing tradition.
Maize stalk is still widely produced in parts of Mesoamerica and as far south as the Andes, demonstrating the continued importance of this resource.
Why Maize? (Social and Spiritual Significance)
“From North America to the southern reaches of South America, maize, alcohol, and spiritual and social life are inextricably intertwined.” This quote encapsulates the profound cultural significance of maize.
Smalley & Blake (2003) suggest that the spread of maize was initially related to social and spiritual concerns more than subsistence and economic ones, with roots in the Archaic period. This perspective shifts the focus from basic survival to cultural and social motivations.
Spreading North
This section likely refers to the timeline and geographic spread of maize cultivation northward from its origin, detailing the routes and timing of maize diffusion.
Maize in the American Southwest
Maize and squash agriculture spread to northern Mexico and the southwestern U.S. around 4000 B.P. during the Southwestern Late Archaic Period. This marked a significant agricultural transition in the region.
The exact route of this spread has been debated, focusing on whether it occurred primarily through inland or coastal pathways.
Recent genetic studies suggest both inland and coastal routes, with the inland route appearing earlier. This provides a more nuanced understanding of the spread of maize.
Maize in the American Southwest (Continued)
The initial impact of maize and squash varied across the region, depending on local environmental conditions and existing subsistence strategies.
In some areas, it led to increased sedentism (settled living), as agriculture allowed for more stable food supplies.
In other areas, agriculture did not significantly change the lives of Late Archaic hunter-gatherers, indicating that maize was integrated into existing subsistence patterns rather than replacing them entirely.
Maize eventually spread east and north from the Southwest into the rest of North America, becoming a staple crop in many regions.
Woodland Subsistence
The earliest dates for maize in eastern North America are 2000-1800 B.P., indicating a later adoption of maize compared to other regions.
It was rare in the Early/Middle Woodland periods and played a minor role in the diet, suggesting that other food sources were more important during this time.
Throughout the Woodland period, hunting and gathering remained key subsistence elements, alongside the cultivation of various local domesticates. This highlights the mixed subsistence strategies of Woodland peoples.
Maize Agriculture in Eastern North America
By the beginning of the Late Woodland period, maize had spread as far north as Ontario, demonstrating its adaptability to different climates.
Maize was cultivated throughout much of eastern North America by 1,700 years ago, becoming an increasingly important crop.
Isotope analysis of skeletal remains indicates that maize did not become a major dietary component until about 1000 years ago, revealing a time lag between the introduction of maize and its widespread adoption as a staple food.
Food Preparation
Maize was routinely ground before cooking to improve digestibility and palatability.
It was used to make tortillas and similar cakes, providing a versatile and nutritious food source.
Grinding corn (and other seeds) was done with grinding stones called manos and metates, essential tools for early maize agriculture.
These tools are common in regions where maize was grown, providing archaeological evidence of maize use.
Other Mesoamerican Domesticates
A list of other plants domesticated in Mesoamerica, including:
Avocado
Agave
Amaranth
Arrowroot
Beans (many varieties)
Cacao
Cashew
Century Plant
Chia (seed used in beverages)
Copal (incense)
Cotton
Guava
Hog Plum
Husk Tomato (tomatillo)
Jack Bean
Jicama
Manioc
Papaya
Peanut
Prickly Pear
Pumpkin
Sweet potato
Tepary Bean
Tomato
Vanilla
Walnut Squash
Yam Bean
Yucca
Maize Spreading South
This section likely refers to the timeline and geographic spread of maize cultivation southward from its origin, including the routes and mechanisms of its dispersal.
Pre-agricultural Coastal Villages
By 8,000 years ago, small settled villages developed along the Peruvian coast, preceding the development of widespread agriculture.
Houses were constructed from reeds and grasses over wooden structures, indicating early forms of permanent settlements.
About 10 families lived in a village at any given time, suggesting small-scale social organization.
Burial data indicates no evidence of higher-status individuals, reflecting egalitarian social structures.
The inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, relying on wild resources for their sustenance.
They relied heavily on rich coastal marine resources, demonstrating the importance of the ocean for their survival.
They exploited a wide range of wild plant resources, including seeds, fruits, and tubers, indicating a broad knowledge of local flora.
Cultivated gourds were domesticated; beans and squash may have been cultivated but were not significant dietary components, suggesting a gradual transition to agriculture.
Maize into South America
Maize appears to have been introduced from Mexico into South America at least 6,500 years ago (likely earlier), indicating early connections between Mesoamerica and South America.
Maize was then bred separately on both continents, leading to the diversity of forms seen today, highlighting the independent evolution of maize varieties.
DNA research is ongoing to determine the origins of different forms, aiming to clarify the complex history of maize domestication and dispersal.
Andean Domestication
Domesticated beans from Guitarrero Cave have been directly dated to 4,300 years ago, providing evidence for early bean cultivation in the Andes.
Quinoa seeds have been found in layers dating back 5,700-4,500 years at Panaulauca Cave, demonstrating the long history of quinoa use in the region.
The earliest evidence for domesticated potatoes dates back 4,000-3,000 years ago, marking the beginning of potato cultivation in the Andes.
These may not be the earliest domesticated potatoes because they were found along the coast, not where wild potatoes grow, suggesting that the earliest potato domestication sites may be located elsewhere.
Andean Domestication (Continued)
Llamas and alpacas (camelids) were domesticated starting 10,000-5000 years ago, providing transportation, wool, and meat for Andean peoples.
The guinea pig is another domesticated Andean animal, serving as a food source.
The timing of guinea pig domestication is unknown but possibly occurred after camelids, suggesting that camelid domestication may have paved the way for other animal domestications.
The Cotton Preceramic
This period is named for the abundance of cotton seeds and the absence of pottery, representing a unique cultural phase in Andean history.
Sites are often large, with monumental architecture, indicating complex social organization and labor mobilization.
The Cotton Preceramic diet primarily consisted of fish and shellfish, reflecting the importance of marine resources.
A wide range of domesticated plants, including gourds, squash, chili pepper, beans, and jicama, were grown, supplementing the marine diet.
Cotton was the dominant crop species, used for making textiles and nets, demonstrating the central role of cotton in this society.
Plant Domestication in Amazonia
Archaeological research in the Amazon basin was rare until recent years, leading