Overview - Internal

Teacher/pupil relationships:

Francis (2000) highlighted that the increasing presence of female teachers provides strong role models for girls, reinforcing the idea that education leads to career success. In contrast, the shortage of male teachers, particularly in primary schools, may leave boys without academic role models, contributing to lower engagement.

Francis and Skelton (2005) found that teachers tend to have higher expectations for girls, viewing them as more diligent and better behaved, while boys are often seen as disruptive. These expectations can create self-fulfilling prophecies, where girls work harder and boys disengage from learning.

Sewell (2006) suggested the lack of male teachers and role models in schools may contribute to boys' disengagement from education.

Swann (1998) found that boys tend to dominate class discussions, often through loud and competitive behaviour , whereas girls prefer group work and cooperative learning. This aligns with teaching methods that favour communication skills, which may benefit girls more than boys.

Peer group interactions:

Willis (1977) study of "the lads" found that working-class boys actively resisted school, seeing it as irrelevant to their futures in manual work.

Ward (2015) found that some working-class boys are adapting, recognizing the need for qualifications but still struggling with traditional expectations of masculinity.

Epstein et al. (1999) found that working-class boys often form anti-school subcultures, where academic success is seen as "uncool" or "feminine."

Fear of being labelled as "swots" leads boys to reject schoolwork, resulting in underachievement.

Mac an Ghaill (1994) studied how different forms of masculinity develop within schools, particularly among working-class boys. He found that "laddish" subcultures, such as the "Macho Lads," rejected school authority and academic success, seeing education as unmasculine. These boys often engaged in anti-school behaviors to maintain their status among peers, reinforcing working-class, traditional notions of masculinity that contributed to underachievement. Mac an Ghaill also identified different female subcultures in schools, including

"the girls who worked hard" and "the rebellious girls" who rejected traditional expectations. Some working-class girls valued academic success but still conformed to traditional femininity, balancing schoolwork with social status.

Organisation of teaching and learning:

Mitsos and Browne (1998) found that changes in education, such as the introduction of coursework, benefited girls, as they tend to be more organised and better at meeting deadlines. Meanwhile, boys often struggle with sustained effort and attention to detail, leading to lower achievement levels.

Sewell (2006) argued that the education system has become "feminised," favouring traits such as attentiveness, discipline, and organisation, which benefit girls more than boys. He suggested that the decline of competitive, exam-based assessment and the rise of coursework disadvantaged boys, who tend to thrive in structured, high-pressure environments.

Spender (1983) suggested that the curriculum and school organisation historically favored male experiences and perspectives, although feminist educational reforms have worked to challenge this bias.

Patcher (1998) explored how gendered subject choices are influenced by the organisation of teaching, showing that boys and girls are often subtly steered towards traditionally "masculine" or "feminine" subjects.