Unit 4: Chapter 10 - Development Study Guide

Overview of Development in AP Human Geography

• Definition of Development: The specific process of improving the material conditions of people through the diffusion of knowledge and technology.
• Classifications of Countries:     * More Developed Countries (MDCs): Also referred to as developed countries.     * Less Developed Countries (LDCs): Also described as emerging or developing countries.
• Historical Classifications:     * First World: Typically aligned with highly developed, capitalist economies.     * Second World: Historically referred to socialist or former communist-bloc states.     * Third World: Originally referred to non-aligned nations, now often used to describe LDCs, though sometimes criticized for being dismissive of varying levels of growth.

Global Access to Infrastructure and Services

• Electricity Access Statistics:     * Approximately $3.6 imes 10^9$ (3.6 billion) people globally have either no access or only partial access to electricity.     * Regional Numbers (Millions of People Lacking Adequate Electricity):         * Sub-Saharan Africa: $1,054$ million.         * South Asia: $720$ million.         * East Asia and Pacific: $378$ million.         * Latin America and Caribbean: $136$ million.         * Middle East and North Africa: $209$ million.         * Europe and Central Asia: $2$ million.     * Regional Numbers (Millions of People with No Electricity):         * Sub-Saharan Africa: $585$ million.         * South Asia: $449$ million.         * South-East Asia: $184$ million.         * East Asia: $31$ million.         * Latin America: $21$ million.

The Human Development Index (HDI)

• Measurement Composition: The United Nations (UN) uses the Human Development Index to measure the level of development across countries based on three broad dimensions and four specific indicators.
• Dimension 1: Health (Longevity):     * Indicator (4): Life expectancy at birth.
• Dimension 2: Education:     * Indicator (2): Mean years of schooling (average number of years spent in school by adults aged 25 or older).     * Indicator (3): Expected years of schooling (forecasted years a child of school-entrance age will spend in school).     * Specific Literacy Metrics: MDCs typically maintain literacy rates above 96 \text{%}, while LDCs often fall below 80 \text{%}.
• Dimension 3: Living Standards (Economic):     * Indicator (1): Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.
• HDI Ranking Examples (2013 data):     * Highest Development:         1. Norway: $0.94$         2. Australia: $0.93$         3. Switzerland: $0.92$         4. Netherlands: $0.92$         5. United States: $0.91$     * Lowest Development:         183. Sierra Leone: $0.37$         184. Chad: $0.37$         185. Central African Republic: $0.34$         186. Congo: $0.34$         187. Niger: $0.34$

Economic Dimensions and Sectors

• Economic Sectors:     * Primary Sector: Directly extracting raw materials from the earth or water (e.g., farming, mining, fishing).     * Secondary Sector: Manufacturing and processing raw materials into finished consumer goods (factory jobs).     * Tertiary Sector: Provision of services to consumers and businesses (e.g., sales, transportation, entertainment, banking, law, healthcare).     * Quaternary Sector: Intellectual and data-driven activities (e.g., government, scientific research, information technology, libraries).     * Quinary Sector: High-level decision-making (e.g., top executives in government, science, nonprofits, and media).
• Sectoral Trends:     * Primary: Percentage of workers is decreasing in LDCs due to mechanization. In MDCs, it remains stable at a very low percentage.     * Secondary: Has decreased sharply in MDCs since $1980$ due to deindustrialization and automation. It is increasing in some LDCs (like China) due to lower wage advantages.     * Tertiary: Dominates MDC economies and is the only sector likely to grow in those regions. This sector grows in LDCs as they develop.
• Comparative Employment Distribution Examples:     * USA: 2 \text{%} Primary, 23 \text{%} Secondary, 75 \text{%} Tertiary.     * Brazil: 16 \text{%} Primary, 24 \text{%} Secondary, 60 \text{%} Tertiary.     * Nepal: 81 \text{%} Primary, 3 \text{%} Secondary, 16 \text{%} Tertiary.

Wealth and Productivity Metrics

• Gross National Income (GNI): The total income earned by a country's residents and businesses, including investments made abroad.     * GNI per Capita Calculation: $\frac{\text{Total GNI}}{\text{Population}}$.     * Averages (2014): MDCs average approximately $\$44,000$, while LDCs average around $\$12,000$.     * National Comparisons (2014):         * U.S. GNI: $\$17.6 \times 10^{12}$ (trillion) for $325,000,000$ people, resulting in a GNI per capita of $\$52,000$ to $\$60,000$.         * China GNI: $\$10.1 \times 10^{12}$ (trillion) for $1.364 \times 10^9$ people, resulting in a GNI per capita of $\$7,400$.
• Gini Coefficient: A measure of income inequality within a region. The scale is \text{0} < G < \text{1}. A coefficient closer to $1$ indicates greater income inequality.
• Productivity and Value Added: MDCs are more productive due to higher access to technology and education. "Value added" is the gross value of a product minus the costs of raw materials and energy.
• Consumer Goods: Items like motor vehicles and cellular telephones are vital for MDC economies and widely accessible. In LDCs, these goods are often concentrated in urban areas connected to global markets.

Formal vs. Informal Economies

• Formal Economy: Activities that are taxed and regulated by the government. These jobs are generally stable and offer better pay.
• Informal Economy: Activities neither taxed nor monitored by the government. Common in LDCs; can be legal (street vending) or illegal.
• Informal Employment Statistics (Non-Agricultural):     * South Asia: 82 \text{%}.     * Sub-Saharan Africa: 66 \text{%}.     * East Asia/Pacific: 65 \text{%}.     * Latin America/Caribbean: 51 \text{%}.     * Middle East/North Africa: 45 \text{%}.
• Uneven Development: GDP per capita can vary drastically within a single country. Projections for China, Brazil, and Mexico show regional disparities where some states exceed 150 \text{%} of the national average while others fall below 75 \text{%}.

Social Indicators: Health and Education

• Education Funding and Metrics:     * Mean Schooling Years: $12.2$ in MDCs vs. $7.3$ in LDCs.     * Expected Schooling Years: $16.4$ in MDCs vs. $10.1$ in LDCs.     * Student-Teacher Ratio: Generally higher in LDCs (meaning more students per teacher). Lower ratios in MDCs suggest more individualized instruction.
• Health and Welfare:     * Diet: Minimum adequate intake is approximately $2,350\, \text{kcal}$ per day.     * Healthcare Access: Measured by metrics like physicians per $1,000$ persons.     * Social Safety Nets: MDCs often have programs like Social Security, food stamps, and Medicaid.

Demographic Indicators of Development

• Life Expectancy: Babies born in MDCs can expect to live to their $79\text{s}$, whereas those in LDCs often live to $65\text{s}$ or less.
• Infant Mortality Rate (IMR):     * LDCs: 3.4 \text{%} average (4.9 \text{%} in the least developed).     * MDCs: 0.4 \text{%}.
• Crude Birth Rate (CBR): $23/1,000$ in LDCs vs. $10/1,000$ in MDCs.
• Natural Increase Rate (NIR): 1.4 \text{%} in LDCs (2.5 \text{%} in the least developed) vs. 0 \text{%} in MDCs.
• Crude Death Rate (CDR): Interestingly, CDR is more equal across development levels due to the diffusion of modern medicine. CDR may even be slightly higher in MDCs (around $10$) compared to LDCs (around $8$) because MDCs have a higher proportion of elderly citizens.

Gender and Development

• Gender-Related Development Index (GDI): Compares the development of women with that of both sexes.
• Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM): Measures the decision-making capabilities of men and women in politics and economics.
• Gender Inequality Index (GII): A composite measure on a scale of $0$ to $1$, where $0$ represents perfect equality and $1$ represents total inequality.     * Components of GII:         1. Reproductive Health: Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) and Adolescent Fertility Rate (AFR).         2. Empowerment: Share of parliamentary seats and secondary education attainment.         3. Labor Market Participation: Participation in the formal economy.
• Economic Impact of Low GII: Lower GII correlates with higher development because women become economic assets, wage earners, and innovators. This increases GNI per capita and life expectancy while lowering the NIR/CBR, which reduces youth dependency and allows for more infrastructure investment.

Development Theories and Models

• Brandt Line: A proposed division of the world into the wealthy "North" and the poorer "South." Australia and New Zealand are classified as part of the "North" despite their southern geographic location.
• Wallerstein World Systems Theory: A view of development based on the redistribution of resources from the periphery to the core.     * The Core: Highly developed, industrialized, democratic. Focuses on high-skill, high-education, and high-tech processes to generate wealth. Competes for access to world resources.     * The Periphery: Underdeveloped, provides raw materials and cheap, unskilled labor. Processes result in low wealth and lack economic diversification. Targets for exploitation by transnational corporations.     * Semi-Periphery: Nations moving toward industrialization with economies midway between core and periphery characteristics.