Epic and Augustus: Virgil's Historical and Political Context

Epic and Augustus

  • The lecture will focus on Virgil, but will begin by discussing the historical and political context in which he wrote.

  • Epic poetry, especially Roman literature, is intertwined with the historical and political climate of its time. This intertwining reflects how poets often engage with and respond to the events, ideologies, and power structures of their society.

Background

  • Each week there will be a handout with key terms and lecture outlines. These handouts are designed to guide your understanding of the material and highlight important concepts.

  • Virgil's Aeneid is the first complete Latin epic and considered a very important literary work from ancient Rome. Its significance lies in its artistic achievement, its exploration of Roman identity, and its influence on subsequent literature.

  • Understanding the first century BCE, up to Virgil's death in 19 BCE, is important for context. This period was marked by significant political upheaval and the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.

  • More detailed information on the late republic, Augustus, and the Aeneid can be found in the Roman world lecture course on iTunesU.

  • Virgil lived during a period of great political and social change/upheaval. The late Republic was characterized by civil wars, political rivalries, and the breakdown of traditional norms.

  • Virgil was born in 70 BCE.

The Republican Political System

  • The Republican political system was oligarchic, with power held by a few elite families, specifically the men within those families. These families controlled the major political offices and exerted considerable influence over the Senate and the assemblies.

  • Elite men held the magistracies of the Roman Republic and positions in the Roman Senate. These positions included consul, praetor, aedile, and quaestor, each with specific powers and responsibilities.

  • Power tended to be passed down within families, and marriage occurred within this elite group. This created a closed system of power and influence, reinforcing the dominance of a small number of families.

  • The voting system was skewed towards empowering these elite families. The Centuriate Assembly, for example, gave disproportionate weight to the votes of wealthy citizens.

  • This system began to break down during Virgil's lifetime. The rise of powerful individuals, such as Marius, Sulla, Caesar, and Pompey, challenged the traditional authority of the Senate and the aristocracy.

  • Epic fragments from the mid-republic, when the system was more stable, contrast with the instability Virgil experienced. These fragments offer insights into the values and ideals of the Roman Republic before its decline.

  • During the mid-republic, Rome expanded its power, incorporating Italy and parts of the Greek world. This expansion brought wealth, resources, and manpower to Rome, but it also created new challenges, such as managing conquered territories and dealing with social unrest.

  • The first century BCE was characterized by civil wars and the rise of individual power. These conflicts were driven by a combination of political ambition, social inequality, and the breakdown of traditional norms.

  • There was a division between those who wanted to maintain the power of the Senate and those who wanted to extend power and land to the landless poor. This division led to political polarization and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of civil war.

Julius Caesar and Pompey

  • The conflict culminated in a civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey (Pompeius Magnus) from 49-45 BCE. This war was a turning point in Roman history, marking the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire.

  • Pompey was murdered in 48 BCE, beheaded in Egypt. His death marked the end of the old Republican order and paved the way for Caesar's dictatorship.

  • The scene of Priam's headless corpse in Aeneid book two, line 588, would have reminded Roman readers of Pompey's fate. Virgil uses this allusion to connect the events of the Trojan War to the political turmoil of his own time.

  • Referencing ancient poems:- Example: Priam's death is in Aeneid book two, line 588, written as 2.588.

  • Caesar became dictator, initially an emergency position, but he made it permanent. Caesar's assumption of dictatorial power was a direct challenge to the authority of the Senate and a sign of the Republic's demise.

  • Caesar was assassinated on March 15 (the Ides of March) in 44 BCE. His assassination was carried out by a group of senators who hoped to restore the Republic, but it ultimately led to further civil war.

Octavian/Augustus

  • Julius Caesar's heir was Octavius, later known as Octavian. Octavian's rise to power was marked by political maneuvering, military victories, and the gradual consolidation of his authority.

  • Upon Caesar's death and adoption in his will, Octavius took the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus at the age of 19. This adoption legitimized his claim to Caesar's legacy and allowed him to inherit his vast wealth and political connections.

  • Octavian later took the title Augustus, becoming the first emperor of Rome. The title Augustus conferred upon him a sense of religious authority and signaled the beginning of a new era in Roman history.

  • Octavian and Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius) formed an alliance, the second triumvirate, modeled after Caesar and Pompey's alliance, along with Lepidus. This alliance was intended to restore order to the Roman state and avenge Caesar's death, but it was ultimately undermined by personal rivalries and political ambition.

  • Mark Antony married Octavia, Augustus's sister, to strengthen the alliance. This marriage was a political tool designed to cement the bond between Octavian and Antony, but it ultimately failed to prevent their conflict.

  • Antony then married Cleopatra, effectively ending his marriage to Octavia and the alliance. Antony's relationship with Cleopatra was seen as a betrayal of Roman values and a threat to Roman power.

  • In 31 BCE, Antony and Cleopatra fought against Octavian at the Battle of Actium and lost. This battle marked the end of Antony's ambitions and the beginning of Octavian's sole rule.

  • In 30 BCE, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Their deaths eliminated the last major obstacle to Octavian's control of the Roman world.

  • Augustus became the sole ruler and the first emperor of Rome. His reign marked the beginning of the Roman Empire and a period of relative peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana.

  • The system inaugurated by Augustus is called the empire or the principate. The principate was a system of government in which the emperor held supreme power, but maintained the facade of republican institutions.

Virgil: Life and Works

  • Virgil's full name is Publius Vergilius Maro.

  • He was from Northern Italy, near Mantua, not far from Venice. His birthplace in Cisalpine Gaul influenced his perspective and provided him with a unique cultural background.

  • His family lost their land during the civil war. This experience shaped his views on the human cost of conflict and the importance of peace and stability.

  • He became successful as a poet. Virgil's talent and dedication to his craft earned him the patronage of powerful figures, such as Maecenas, who supported his literary endeavors.

  • Virgil published three known works:

The Eclogues

  • Published in 39 BCE.

  • A set of 10 poems modeled on bucolic or pastoral poetry (Greek poems about shepherds). Virgil's Eclogues draw inspiration from Theocritus, a Greek poet who wrote about rural life and idealized landscapes.

  • Themes include dispossession from land and unrequited love. These themes reflect the social and political realities of Virgil's time, as well as his personal experiences.

  • Established Virgil as an important poet in Rome. The Eclogues brought Virgil to the attention of Maecenas, who became his patron and encouraged him to write the Georgics.

The Georgics

  • Published in 29 BCE.

  • Four books; the word Georgics means "farming stuff."

  • Didactic poetry (teaching you). The Georgics provide practical advice on farming, animal husbandry, and beekeeping, but they also explore deeper themes about the relationship between humans and nature.

  • Engages with the political situation of the time, the aftermath of civil war. Virgil uses the Georgics to reflect on the devastation caused by the civil wars and to offer a vision of a restored and prosperous Italy.

  • Includes a scene where a farmer finds armor from the civil wars. This scene serves as a reminder of the violence and destruction that have recently plagued the Italian countryside.

  • Contains the "praise of Italy," celebrating Italy as the center of the world, and expresses hope for the future. Virgil's praise of Italy is a patriotic statement that reflects his belief in the potential of his homeland.

Eclogue 4

  • Poem about hope for the future, about a baby who's just been born. This poem is often interpreted as a messianic prophecy, foretelling the birth of a savior who will bring peace and prosperity to the world.

  • Some believe it refers to a child born to Antony and Octavia. This interpretation suggests that Virgil may have been hoping for a reconciliation between the two leaders and a return to stability.

  • Christian authors interpreted it as a prophecy of the birth of Christ. This interpretation has made Eclogue 4 one of the most influential poems in Western literature.

  • The Georgics also looks to Octavian as a bringer of peace, expressing both hope and fear. Virgil's attitude towards Octavian is complex, reflecting both his gratitude for the peace he has brought and his anxieties about the future of Roman society.

  • Virgil's poems, though seemingly about simple subjects, engage with the concerns of the time: peace and stability.

The Aeneid

  • Deals with mythological material and the remote past, specifically the aftermath of the Trojan War (13th-12th century BCE). Virgil's decision to set his epic in the distant past allows him to explore themes of empire, destiny, and the human cost of war in a way that is both timeless and relevant to his own time.

  • Virgil was a major poet by this time, and some hoped he would write directly about Octavian and the civil wars. However, Virgil chose to approach these topics indirectly, through the lens of myth and legend.

  • Instead, he chose to set his epic in the remote past.

  • Romans traced a direct line between Aeneas and Augustus. This connection was used to legitimize Augustus's rule and to portray him as the fulfillment of Roman destiny.

  • Augustus's family, the Julii, claimed descent from Aeneas's son, Ascanius, also known as Iulus. This claim was a key part of Augustus's propaganda campaign, which sought to link his family to the legendary founders of Rome.

  • The Julian name was said to originate from Iulus.

  • Although the poem is set in the remote past, it connects to the political figure of Augustus. This connection is