History, Literature, and Society: From the Stuarts to the Restoration

Charles I and the Origins of the English Civil War ($1625$-$1660$)

Charles I ($1625$-$1649$), the son of James I, was a shy monarch who avoided mixing with ordinary citizens. He was a dedicated patron of the arts, supporting painters such as Peter Paul Rubens and Sir Anthony Van Dyck, and amassed one of the most significant art collections in Europe. Shortly after ascending to the throne, he married Henrietta Maria, the Catholic daughter of the King of France. Inheriting his father's belief in the divine right of kings, Charles I sought to govern without the interference of Parliament. Early in his reign, he summoned Parliament to request funds for a war with Spain; when they refused to increase taxes, he dismissed them and ruled independently for $11$ years, a period often referred to as his personal rule. The House of Commons, which was staunchly Protestant, remained suspicious of the Catholic influence at court and was generally unwilling to grant the King money.

Constant friction between the King and Parliament culminated in the Petition of Rights in $1628$. This document established that the King could not imprison individuals without trial or levy taxes without the consent of the Commons. Although it served as a foundational document for future civil rights, Charles initially dismissed it, believing he was divinely ordained to rule. In $1634$, he invoked his royal prerogative to demand 'ship money,' a tax intended for the Royal Navy, which provoked significant public resistance. Forced by a rebellion in Scotland to raise an army, Charles summoned what became known as the 'Long Parliament' in $1640$. This assembly reflected a societal shift as influence moved from the medieval church and landed aristocracy to a rising middle class of small landowners, merchants, and professionals. When Charles entered the House of Commons in $1642$ to arrest $5$ Members of Parliament, who had already fled, the situation escalated. The King raised a Royalist army, and the Parliamentarians (also known as Roundheads) prepared to resist, marking the start of the Civil War ($1642$-$1649$).

The Commonwealth and the Evolution of Governance

The term 'commonwealth' originally derived from the $16$th-century phrase 'common weal,' meaning well-being, which was a translation of the Latin res publica (republic). By the $17$th century, the definition expanded to describe a democratic state where supreme power is held by the people. Following the Civil War, England became the 'Commonwealth of England,' though from $1649$ to $1653$ and $1659$ to $1660$, it was effectively under military rule by Oliver Cromwell and later his son Richard. Philosophers like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke utilized the term to describe organized political communities. In modern times, the term is associated with the Commonwealth of Nations, which originated from the British Empire. Prime Minister Lord Rosebery first described the Empire as a 'Commonwealth of nations' in Australia in $1884$. The United Kingdom and the colonies formally recognized their equality in $1926$. The current Commonwealth, established in $1946$ as a 'family of nations,' consists of over $50$ member states, including Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

Several political terms are defined within this era: a 'dictator' is a ruler with total power, often obtained by force; 'mercantilism' is an economic theory maximizing a nation's trade surplus to encourage national wealth; 'monarchy' is a government where the head of state is a king or queen; a 'parliamentarian' is a supporter of the parliament; a 'republic' is a state where power is held by the people and their elected representatives; and a 'royalist' is a supporter of the monarchy.

The Restoration of the Stuarts and the Glorious Revolution

The Restoration of the monarchy occurred in $1660$, bringing Charles II ($1660$-$1685$) to the throne. While many welcomed the end of strict Puritan rule, the court of Charles II was regarded as highly immoral. When the bubonic plague struck London in $1665$, killing over $100,000$ people, and the Great Fire destroyed most of the city (including St Paul's Cathedral) in $1666$, Puritans viewed these as divine punishments. Charles II died without a legitimate heir and was succeeded by his brother, James II ($1633$-$1688$), a Catholic convert. James II's efforts to grant civic equality to Catholics and Protestant dissenters led to intense conflict with Parliament. The birth of his son by his Catholic wife, Mary of Modena, in $1688$ sparked fears of a permanent Catholic succession.

A group of Protestant nobles invited William of Orange ($1650$-$1702$), husband of James’s Protestant daughter Mary ($1662$-$1694$), to intervene. William landed in Devon with an army in November, and James II fled the country. This peaceful transition is known as the Glorious Revolution. William III and Mary II were crowned as joint monarchs in $1688$. Under their reign, England experienced economic progress, and the Bill of Rights of $1689$ was passed, preventing the monarch from raising taxes or maintaining an army without Parliamentary consent. This solidified the victory of a constitutional monarchy. Further legal steps included the $1701$ Act of Settlement and the $1707$ Act of Union, which created Great Britain by uniting England, Wales, and Scotland.

The Metaphysical Poets: Intellectual and Spiritual Crisis

Metaphysical poetry reflected the intellectual and spiritual crisis of the $17$th century as the world transitioned from the Renaissance to the modern age. The term was coined by 18th-century critic Samuel Johnson in Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets ($1779$-$1781$) to describe poets including John Donne, George Herbert, Richard Crashaw, Andrew Marvell, and Henry Vaughan. 'Metaphysical' means 'after the physical,' referring to levels of reality beyond sensory perception. This poetry was analytical rather than simply expressive, exploring inner consciousness and fundamental questions about the universe and man's place within it.

Metaphysical poets were noted for their originality, linguistic immediacy, and 'wit'—a combination of sensitivity and cleverness. Their work was dense with references to religious debate, astrology, alchemy, geography, and philosophy. Stylistic features included the use of questions, imperatives, paradoxes, and epigrammatic conciseness. A hallmark of their style was the 'conceit,' an unusual and inventive metaphor that arranged images in unexpected ways to surprise the reader. Most poems began in medias res, thrusting the reader into the center of an argument. Though ignored during the $18$th century's preference for clarity, their reputation was revived in the $20$th century by T.S. Eliot ($1888$-$1965$), who highlighted their intellectualism and affinity with modern interests.

The Life and Works of John Donne ($1572$-$1631$)

John Donne was born into a wealthy Catholic family during a time of strong anti-Catholic sentiment. He studied law in London starting in $1591$ and wrote early works like Songs and Sonnets and Satires, which were admired in private circles. In $1598$, he was appointed private secretary to Sir Thomas Egerton. However, his career prospects were ruined in $1601$ due to a secret marriage to Egerton's $17$-year-old niece, Ann More. They had $12$ children, $5$ of whom died young. Donne eventually converted to Anglicanism, urged by King James, and took holy orders in $1615$. Following his wife's death in $1617$, he wrote Holy Sonnets ($1618$) and was appointed Dean of St Paul's Cathedral in $1621$. He became a legendary preacher, attracting massive crowds until his death in $1631$.

Donne’s poetry is the quintessential example of the Metaphysical school, characterized by philosophical investigations of God, love, and mortality. He utilized dramatic monologues and conceits drawn from cosmology, medicine, and geography. His work is defined by the tension between the physical and the spiritual; he frequently used religious metaphors in love poems and physical love metaphors in his Divine Poems. Unlike courtly poets, Donne focused little on the physical appearance of women and often emphasized their inconstancy. He was haunted by mortality, using the theme of death to explore the limits of faith and human existence.

John Milton and the Epic Paradise Lost ($1608$-$1674$)

John Milton was a committed Protestant and Humanist scholar who viewed his poetic talent as a divine gift. He studied at Cambridge and toured Europe, meeting Galileo in Fiesole. A staunch supporter of Cromwell, he was appointed Secretary for Foreign Languages in $1649$. Milton became blind by $1652$, which he claimed stimulated his verbal richness. After the Restoration, his republican writings were burned, and he was briefly imprisoned before being released. His masterwork, Paradise Lost, was written in $1667$ following this period of personal and political loss.

Paradise Lost is an epic poem that opens in medias res, featuring Satan and the rebel angels in Hell after their defeat in Heaven. The plot involves Satan’s decision to corrupt God’s new creation, leading Adam and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. The central theme is 'Man's first Disobedience' and the conflict between fate and free will. Milton used a grand, serious style with Latin syntax, difficult vocabulary, and a new form of blank verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter. He employed 'epic similes'—extended metaphors—to heighten the subject's heroic stature. While Satan initially displays qualities of a tragic hero (courage, leadership), he ultimately acts only in self-interest. Milton based the universe of the poem on the traditional Ptolemaic system, despite his awareness of Copernican cosmology.

Restoration Theatre and the Comedy of Manners

With the Restoration in $1660$, theatres reopened, moving away from Puritan restrictions. Restoration theatres were roofed, intimate spaces illuminated by candles. Innovations included the stage curtain to hide scene changes, painted movable scenery, and the introduction of footlights and sidelights to increase stage light while keeping the audience area dark. The audience, primarily from the upper class, was loud and active, often shouting, eating, and drinking during shows. This era also saw the advent of professional actresses, with David Garrick emerging as a prominent star.

The 'Comedy of Manners' became the era's primary literary expression, satirizing the absurdities of high society. These plays typically featured witty, amoral couples, abandoned mistresses, and cuckolded men. Two distinct male types emerged: the 'fop' (elegant and witty but cynical) and the 'gallant' (the fortunate lover). Plots often focused on intrigue, marriage, money, and sex, using prose instead of rhymed verse for realism. William Congreve's The Way of the World ($1700$) is a masterpiece of this genre. It follows Mirabell's attempts to marry the beautiful and witty Millamant. The play explores the relationship between passion and social convention, viewing marriage not as a sacrament but as a battle for supremacy and inheritance.

Questions & Discussion

Q: Which conflict did the Civil War arise out of? A: The Civil War arose out of the conflict between Charles I and Parliament over the King's belief in the divine right of kings, his refusal to share power with Parliament, and disputes over taxation and religion.

Q: What types of government exist today? What are some global partnerships between governments? A: Governments today include democracies, constitutional monarchies, and republics. Global partnerships include the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Nations, and various trade and defense alliances.

Q: What makes John Donne's poetry Metaphysical? A: It is Metaphysical because it involves philosophical investigations of large ideas like God and mortality, utilizes complex conceits from diverse fields of knowledge, and maintains a high level of wit and intellectualism.

Q: What parallels can be found between Satan's story and Milton's own life? A: Both Milton and Satan were rebels against political and religious authority; Milton opposed the tyranny of the King and the Church of England, just as Satan opposed the authority of God.

Q: How is the theme of marriage presented in The Way of the World? A: Marriage is presented as a battle for supremacy between partners and as a legal/financial arrangement focused on money and inheritance, rather than a romantic or sacred union.