13. PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEMS

Definition of a regime: “A regime is the general form of government of a state, including its constitution and rules of government.”
Types of government: Democracy, Autocracy, Anocracy
Focus in this presentation: Different systems or forms of government in democratic regimes and exploration of separation of powers with differing approaches

Parliamentary Form of Government:
- Emergence of an assembly that represented local interests alongside a cabinet of ministers.
- Historical control of the cabinet stemmed from the monarch to the assembly.
Presidential Form of Government:
- Influenced by the U.S. Constitutional Convention (1787).
- Characterized by an executive that operates independently from the assembly.
- In the U.S., the executive is indirectly elected.

Cheibub's Definition:
- Survival of the government in office is dependent upon the elected assembly.
- Government continuity is not determined by an independently elected president (if one exists).

Governance typically features a fused relationship rather than a separated one:
- The parliament elects the government, which must maintain its support.
- In many parliamentary systems, the prime minister possesses the authority to dissolve parliament.
- Cabinet members are usually selected from within parliament.
- The executive and legislative branches are closely intertwined and dependent on each other.

Rules for Investiture Votes:
- Variations in timing and decision rules are significant for parliamentary operations.
Questions of Succession: Discussion Points:
- When a head of government resigns while the government remains in office, the party typically selects a successor.
- Poses questions about legitimacy—Do new prime ministers require a popular mandate?

Overview of Principal-Agent Relationships:
- A principal delegates tasks to an agent, whose interests may differ, creating a risk of agency loss.
- Agents typically hold an information advantage.
Remedies for Agency Loss:
- Selection (ex ante) - ensuring the right initial agent is chosen.
- Control (ex post) - monitoring and managing the agent’s performance.

I. Parliamentary Government:
- Structure: Voters, Minister A (Dept. A), Parliament, Prime Minister, Minister B (Dept. B).
II. Presidential Government:
- Structure: President, Secretary A (Dept. A), Voters, Upper Chamber, Secretary B (Dept. B), Lower Chamber.
- Source: Strøm (2000: 269)

Characteristics:
- Simple delegation form with a straightforward chain of authority.
- Fewer checks and balances compared to presidential systems.
- A stronger emphasis is placed on ex ante control (selection of agents) as opposed to ex post control.

The parliament acts as the legislative branch, yet its role in actual legislation may be limited.
Governments exert control over parliaments, influencing:
- Legislative agenda management.
- Party discipline among individual members of parliament.
- Resulting in fused power dynamics.

Core Functions Include:
- Public debate facilitation.
- Scrutiny of government-initiated bills (executive oversight).
- Question times for accountability.
- Political recruitment, training, and socialization within the context of governance.

The notion of parliamentary government traditionally conveys a reliance on ex post control, where government survival is contingent upon parliamentary support.
Challenges arise including:
- The threat of parliamentary dissolution affecting governance structure.
- Limited capacity of parliament to monitor government effectively.

Political parties play a critical role:
- Facilitate the process of political selection and enhance ex ante control mechanisms.
- Parties are subject to electoral rewards or sanctioning based on their performance.
- Policy responsibility may often appear unclear, especially in contexts of coalition governments where multiple parties share power.

Models of Democracy:
- Distinction between majoritarian and proportional/consensus models (according to Powell 2000, Lijphart 2012):
- Majoritarian: Control by majority citizens vs. citizen equality in influence.
- Power concentration vs. power-sharing mechanisms.
- The model of electoral systems (Majoritarian vs. Proportional Representation) has significant bearings on:
- The size and composition of the party system.
- Single-party versus coalition government scenarios.

Occurs when no single party is able to achieve a majority in parliament.
Formation Process:
- Coalition formation usually encompasses elite-level bargaining without direct voter influence.
- Challenges include delegation and governance issues due to shared authority.
- Coalition partners may campaign separately yet govern together.

Characteristics:
- The government is composed of parties that do not hold a majority of parliamentary seats.
- The experience of minority governments can also be influenced by formal investiture rules and the basis on which legislative majorities are formed.

Understanding Bicameral Structures: Some nations feature a second chamber/house in their parliamentary system, common among federal states.
Quote by Abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès:
- “If a Second Chamber dissents from the First, it is mischievous; if it agrees, it is superfluous.”
Important Factors Influencing Bicameralism (Lijphart 2012):
- Rules of selection (Congruence/Incongruence).
- Formal decision-making powers, legitimacy deriving from direct election (Symmetry/Asymmetry).

Categorization of Strength:
- Strong Bicameralism: Symmetrical and incongruent chambers (e.g., Argentina, Switzerland, Australia, Germany, United States).
- Medium-Strength Bicameralism:
  - Symmetrical but congruent (e.g., Italy, Japan, Netherlands).
  - Asymmetrical and incongruent (e.g., Canada, France, India).
- Weak Bicameralism: Asymmetrical and congruent chambers (e.g., Austria, United Kingdom, Ireland).

Parliamentarism is recognized as a primary form of democratic government characterized by:
- Fused powers between legislative and executive branches.
- Limited checks and balances ensuring accountability.
- Ex ante control predominantly based on party structures to address agency problems.
Potential Disadvantages:
- Government instability often emerges as a concern in parliamentary systems.