Classical Conditioning

Definition:

Classical conditioning is a learning mechanism where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a significant stimulus (either threatening or rewarding) through repetition.

Key Elements:

• Involves involuntary reflexes and learned associations.

Components of Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., the sound of a bell).

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): A natural, reflexive response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to food).

• Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell).

Phases of Classical Conditioning

1. Acquisition: The initial stage where the association between the CS and UCS is established, leading to CR.

2. Extinction: The process of diminishing the CR when the CS is presented without the UCS repeatedly. Requires multiple sessions and should be spaced out for effectiveness.

3. Spontaneous Recovery: The return of the CR following a rest period after extinction, especially in similar contexts.

4. Rapid Reacquisition: The quick relearning of the CR when the original CS and UCS are paired again after extinction.

Generalization and Discrimination

• Stimulus Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the CS. Example: Dogs salivating to similar sounds as the metronome.

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar stimuli. Important in real-life applications, such as training animals for specific behaviors.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Used in therapy for anxiety disorders and phobias. Involves teaching individuals to differentiate between threatening and non-threatening stimuli.

Little Albert Experiment

• Conducted by: John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920).

• Objective: To demonstrate fear acquisition in human subjects through classical conditioning.

• Procedure: Little Albert, a 9-month-old baby, was exposed to various stimuli, including a white rat, while being presented with a loud, frightening noise produced by striking a metal bar with a hammer. This pairing led him to develop a fear response not only to the rat but also to other white, furry objects like rabbits and cotton balls, exemplifying generalization of the fear response.

• Results: Albert exhibited signs of distress and crying when exposed to the rat even without the accompanying noise, showcasing a learned fear response.

• Ethical considerations: The methods used raised questions about the ethics of using children in psychological experiments and the lasting psychological effects on Little Albert, whose well-being was not adequately ensured post-experiment.

Operant Conditioning

Definition:

Operant conditioning is a learning principle where the consequences of a behavior influence the likelihood of its recurrence. Introduced by B.F. Skinner, focusing on voluntary behaviors.

Key Concepts in Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: Any consequence that strengthens the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., food for pressing a lever).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., turning off an electric shock).

• Punishment: Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Skinner Box

A controlled environment to study operant conditioning. It contains mechanisms for reinforcement (food dispenser) and punishment (electric shock grid). This setup allows for precise measurement of behaviors in response to stimuli and can record the rate of behavior occurrence.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement: Rewarding every occurrence of a behavior leads to quick learning but may not last.

• Partial reinforcement: Rewarding behavior occasionally leads to stronger and more persistent learning. This is effective in explaining behavior persistence in real-world settings (e.g., gambling).

Extinction in Operant Conditioning

Occurs when reinforcement is withheld, leading to a decrease in the behavior. This process can lead to an initial burst of behavior (known as an extinction burst) before a decline ensues.

Shaping Behaviors

A method for teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations toward the desired outcome. Example: Teaching a child to brush their teeth or a pigeon to play ping pong through gradual reinforcement of small steps.

Summary

Classical conditioning focuses on involuntary responses and the association between stimuli, while operant conditioning emphasizes voluntary behaviors influenced by consequences. Both mechanisms are critical in understanding learning and behavior modification.