Introduction to Psychology – Key Vocabulary

Definition and Scope of Psychology

• Psychology = scientific study of mind and behavior
• Etymology
– “Psych” = soul / mind
– “-ology” = scientific study
• Objects of study span the entire human experience:
– Neural activity → consciousness
– Memory, language, reasoning
– Personality, mental health & disorders

Historical Perspectives & Foundational Schools

Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt)

• Founded first psychological research laboratory (Leipzig, 1879)
• Sought the “structure” of the conscious mind via systematic introspection (self-observation)
• Introspection = examining one’s own conscious experience and parsing it into elemental sensations, images, feelings
• Significance: established experimental methodology in psychology but criticized for subjectivity and non-replicability

Functionalism (William James, John Dewey)

• Emphasized the purpose (function) of mental processes in helping organisms adapt to environment
• Drew inspiration from evolutionary theory
• Shifted focus from elements of consciousness to why consciousness works the way it does
• Pioneered applied topics such as education and workplace efficiency

Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

• Studied “hysteria” & neurosis; concluded roots lay in the unconscious
• Key claims:
– Behavior is driven by unconscious motives & early childhood experiences
– Dreams, slips of the tongue, free association reveal unconscious content
• Therapy goal: make the unconscious conscious (talk therapy, dream analysis)
• Ethical/clinical impact: introduced discussion of sexuality, childhood trauma; sparked later psychodynamic approaches

Gestalt Psychology (Wertheimer, Koffka, Köhler)

• “Gestalt” = “whole”
• Perception is not a sum of parts; relations & patterns matter
• Example: Duck–Rabbit illusion – stimulus constant, percept changes
• Influences modern sensation & perception research, cognitive psychology, design principles (e.g., figure–ground, closure)

Behaviorism

• Core tenet: psychology should study observable behavior, not mind

Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov

– Discovered conditioned reflexes (dog salivates to bell)
– Association of $\text{Neutral Stimulus} \Rightarrow \text{Unconditioned Stimulus}$ produces $\text{Conditioned Response}$

Methodological Behaviorism – John B. Watson

– Declared introspection unscientific
– Applied conditioning principles to «Little Albert» study (fear conditioning)

Operant Conditioning – B. F. Skinner

– Behavior shaped by its consequences
– Reinforcement ↑ likelihood; punishment ↓ likelihood
– Designed the “Skinner box” to quantify response rates
• Legacy: foundations of behavior therapy & education technologies

Humanistic Psychology

Abraham Maslow

• Proposed hierarchy of needs:
$\text{Physiological} \rightarrow \text{Safety} \rightarrow \text{Love/Belonging} \rightarrow \text{Esteem} \rightarrow \text{Self-Actualization}$
• Higher motives emerge after lower needs are satisfied

Carl Rogers

• Developed client-centered (person-centered) therapy
• Therapeutic core conditions:
– Unconditional positive regard
– Genuineness (congruence)
– Empathy
• Empowers clients to lead sessions; stresses innate capacity for growth

The Cognitive Revolution (1950s →)

• Triggered by advances in linguistics, neuroscience, computer science
• Noam Chomsky argued mental representations/processes must be studied to explain language & cognition
• Re-introduced mind as legitimate scientific target, leading to cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience, AI models

Pioneering Women

• Margaret Floy Washburn – first woman PhD in psychology (1894)
– Researched animal consciousness; wrote “The Animal Mind”
– Advanced comparative psychology despite gender barriers

Contemporary Branches of Psychology

• Biopsychology & Evolutionary Psychology
• Sensation & Perception
• Cognitive Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Personality Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Health Psychology
• Industrial-Organizational (I-O) Psychology
• Sports & Exercise Psychology
• Clinical Psychology
• Forensic Psychology

Biopsychology

• Investigates how nervous-system structure/function → behavior
• Typical research domains:
– Sensory & motor systems
– Sleep & circadian rhythms
– Drug use/abuse mechanisms
– Ingestive & reproductive behavior
– Neurodevelopment & plasticity
– Biological bases of psychological disorders

Sensation vs Perception

• Sensation = raw sensory input (light, sound, touch, smell)
• Perception = interpretation of sensations, influenced by attention, past experience, culture
• Duck-Rabbit image illustrates constant sensation yet variable perception

Developmental Psychology

• Studies growth across lifespan: physical, cognitive, socio-emotional
• Core domains: moral reasoning, language, social skills
• Jean Piaget – stage theory of cognitive development (sensorimotor → formal operational)

Personality Psychology

• Seeks stable patterns of thought & behavior unique to individuals
• Explores conscious/unconscious processes, trait structure
• Five-Factor Model (OCEAN):
– Openness
– Conscientiousness
– Extraversion
– Agreeableness
– Neuroticism
• High vs low scores predict occupational choice, relationships, health outcomes

Social Psychology

• Examines how people influence, and are influenced by, others
• Key topics: prejudice, attraction, interpersonal conflict, obedience (e.g., Milgram), conformity (Asch)

Health Psychology

• Investigates how biological, psychological, sociocultural factors (biopsychosocial model) interact to affect health/illness
• Applications: stress management, illness prevention, patient adherence

Clinical & Counseling Psychology

• Focus: assessment, diagnosis, treatment of mental disorders
• Modalities include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) → integrates thought patterns & behavior change
• Training usually at doctoral (PhD/PsyD) level; licensure required

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

• Applies psychological principles to workplace
• Areas: personnel selection, training, performance appraisal, organizational development, ergonomics

Sports & Exercise Psychology

• Studies mental factors affecting athletic performance & physical activity
• Issues: motivation, arousal control, imagery, team cohesion, well-being

Forensic Psychology

• Intersection of psychology & legal system
• Tasks: competency evaluations, risk assessment, sentencing recommendations, jury selection, eyewitness reliability
• Requires knowledge of law & ethical standards (APA Specialty Guidelines)

Education & Career Paths

• Most positions require advanced degree (Master’s or PhD)
• Career avenues:
– Teaching (K-12, college)
– Research (academia, government, industry)
– Clinical or counseling practice
– Social work & community services
– Corporate roles (HR, marketing, user-experience)

Employment Distribution for Psychology PhDs (2009)

• University faculty: $26\%$
• Hospital/health services: $25\%$
• Government / VA medical centers: $16\%$
• Business or nonprofit: $10\%$
• Other educational institutions: $8\%$
• Medical school: $6\%$
• Independent practice: $6\%$
(Source: Michalski et al., 2011)

Top 10 Jobs for BA Psychology Graduates (Fogg et al., 2012)

Mid- and top-level management / executives
Sales roles
Social work
Other management positions
Human resources & training
Administrative positions
Insurance / real-estate / business
Marketing & sales (specialized)
Healthcare (nurse, pharmacist, therapist)
Finance (accountant, auditor)

Ethical, Philosophical & Practical Considerations

• Transition from introspection → observable behavior → cognitive inference reflects ongoing debate on what constitutes scientific evidence
• Application of conditioning principles raises questions about free will & manipulation
• Humanistic emphasis on dignity counters reductionist views
• Forensic & clinical work demand adherence to confidentiality, informed consent, and avoidance of dual roles
• Diversity & inclusion: Recognition of historical under-representation (e.g., Washburn, minority scholars) → increasing multicultural competency requirements

Key Equations / Statistical References

• Classical conditioning contingency: P(\text{US}|\text{CS}) > P(\text{US}|\lnot \text{CS})
• Operant learning rate change (simplified): $\Delta R = k \times (\text{Reward} - \text{Cost})$
• Hierarchy of needs often depicted as pyramid; no fixed quantitative scale but conceptual progression
• Employment percentages listed above use standard proportion calculation $$\text{Percentage} = \frac{\text{Category Count}}{\text{Total PhDs}} \times