Ecology and Development: Development and Displacement

THere are detailed notes on Ecology and Development, and Development and Displacement, drawing on the information from the sources:

Ecology and Development

• Interrelationship between Ecology, Environment, and Development: This unit introduces the connections between ecology, environment, and development. It aims to highlight the consequences of development on ecology and the environment, as well as the concerns of ecological movements. The unit begins by discussing the concepts and their evolution.

• Consequences of Development on Ecology and Environment: Ever-expanding industrial and agricultural production has led to strikingly high rates of resource utilisation. Development interventions aimed at the commercialisation of natural resources cause a significant shift in how rights to these resources are perceived and exercised. The resource demands of development have narrowed the natural resource base for the poor and powerless, either by direct transfer or by destroying essential ecological processes.

  • The tremendous impact of human ecology is evident in life-support systems like air, water, land, and energy. Population growth can lead to an imbalance in food production and a crisis of space, causing environmental pollution.

  • Human activities can lead to unfavourable alterations of the environment, resulting in pollution, which is now a worldwide concern.

  • Types of pollution resulting from development activities include:

    • Water pollution: Due to domestic waste, industrial effluents, chemical fertilisers, and pesticides.

    • Air pollution: Caused by industrial emissions, automobile exhaust, burning of fossil fuels, and smoke from domestic fires. Radiation pollution, exemplified by Chernobyl and the Bhopal gas tragedy, is another form.

    • Soil pollution: Can result from solid fallout from nuclear explosions and agricultural activities like the overuse of inorganic manure and chemical-based pesticides.

  • Large-scale deforestation, often driven by forest contractors more than local villagers, leads to floods, soil erosion, silting of rivers, contraction of agricultural areas, and desertification.

• Sustainable Development: The term ‘sustainable development’ has gained international prominence with growing ecological understanding. Ensuring environmental sustainability, the 7th Millennium Development Goal, requires achieving sustainable development patterns and preserving the productive capacity of natural ecosystems for future generations.

  • For development to be sustainable, it must consider social, cultural, ecological, and economic factors of the living and non-living resource base, along with long-term and short-term advantages and disadvantages.

  • The goals of economic and social development must be defined in terms of sustainability in all countries, although interpretation may vary. Physical sustainability requires attention to changes in resource access and the distribution of costs and benefits.

  • Development as an ideology can lead to global market domination by creating a need for international aid and foreign debt, which fund projects that commercialise or privatise resources, shifting control away from local communities.

  • Massive international finance in Third World economic development can drastically change natural resource management, leading to a debt trap and ecological degradation due to rapid export-oriented resource utilisation.

  • Drastic changes in lifestyles and attitudes are essential for a sustainable tomorrow.

• Environmental Concerns and Contemporary Social Theory: The ecological crises have become significant to modern social theory. The relationship between humans and nature, and the negative effects of human actions on it, have emerged as major issues. The growth of environmental politics and movements challenges the environmentally destructive modern industrial/capitalist mode of production and consumption.

  • Habermas views ecology movements as a response of the life-world to its colonisation, with capitalism being the primary cause of environmental degradation.

  • Social theorists emphasise the need for democratisation of state power and civil society for environmental sustainability. Giddens suggests confronting the logic of unchecked scientific and technological development and argues for global intervention. Beck advocates for ecological democracy.

  • Limitations of predominantly representative democracy as a precondition for environmental sustainability are noted.

• Ecology Movements and Survival: Contemporary ecology movements worldwide aim to redesign natural resource utilisation for social equality and ecological sustainability. These movements often arise from conflicts over natural resources and people's right to survival, particularly in regions like the Indian subcontinent where resources are heavily utilised for basic needs. The introduction of resource and energy-intensive technologies can lead to economic growth for a minority while undermining the survival of the majority, causing ecology movements to question dominant development concepts.

  • In India, the intensity and range of ecology movements have widened with increased predatory exploitation of natural resources through industrial activity and major development projects.

  • Examples include the Chipko Movement to save forest resources, the Appiko movement against illegal felling in the Himalayas, and tree planting in the Aravalli Hills. Movements have also emerged against reckless mining operations, such as in the Doon Valley, and against large river valley projects.

• Development Projects as Ecological Concerns: Several development projects in India have raised ecological concerns. The Tehri Hydroelectric Project is cited as a controversial example of development demands causing wanton destruction of the Himalayan geosystem and ecology. Serious doubts were raised about its viability and location.

• Internationalisation of Environmental Concerns: International environmental cooperation is leading to a modification of the doctrines of inalienable national sovereignty. International environmental policy aims to protect and restore the cultural and ecological distinctiveness of nations. Debates on ecological issues at the global level often involve the North-South divide and hierarchy, with differing views on the causes of environmental degradation and the mechanisms to address it. Third World countries argue that industrialised nations should subsidise their efforts to replace polluting industries. Responsibilities for global crises like ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect remain contentious.

  • Different groups (conservationists, developmentalists, women activists, tribals) have varying perspectives on environment-development connections, including conservation, subsistence needs, economic growth models, and resource sustainability.

  • Natural resource management and biodiversity conservation have become major priorities, with community-based approaches being part of global resource management initiatives.

• Conclusion on Ecology and Development: The boundaries of environmental concerns are disappearing, with increasing local-global linkages. Understanding and responding to the dynamics within and between local-global parameters is crucial for grasping ecological politics. "Sustainable development" is a key arena for contestations. A universal recognition that humans are an integral part of nature and must respect its limits is essential. The environmental crisis caused by current development practices requires urgent solutions and coherent ecological perspectives.

• Green Initiatives: There is a need to evolve green initiatives for development and bring about a basic change in production and consumption patterns. India needs to develop a policy that will sustain its resources for future generations, considering the global course of action on climate change.

Development and Displacement

• Development-Induced Displacement (DID): Economic development is often seen as essential for a country's progress. However, a fundamental issue with this model is the consequent displacement of people from their land where development projects are planned and implemented. Displacement is considered the negative side of development. Policy makers must acknowledge this reality and take measures to reduce the suffering of those displaced. Development-induced displacement forces individuals and communities to move. Studies and field experiences highlight the impoverishment of Displaced Persons (DPs) and Project Affected Persons (PAPs) as development projects deprive them of their livelihoods.

• Constitutional Rights and Displacement: Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life with dignity. Development projects can deprive affected people of this basic right by impacting their livelihoods and sustenance. They have a right to begin a new life that protects their economic interests, culture, and social system. Failure to properly resettle them leads to impoverishment and the denial of this basic right in the name of national development.

• Causes of Displacement: Various factors cause development-induced displacement, including projects related to water supply (dams, reservoirs, irrigation), urban infrastructure, and energy.

• Process of Land Acquisition: The process of land acquisition is a key aspect leading to displacement.

• Impact of Displacement: Displacement results in several negative impacts:

  • Impoverishment: DPs and PAPs become poorer as they are deprived of their livelihoods.

  • Loss of Livelihood: Development projects often alienate people from their lands and other assets, leading to a loss of their means of sustenance.

  • Social Disruption: Displacement affects the culture and social systems of the displaced communities.

• People's Resistance: People often resist development-induced displacement. They assert their right to question the entire project and demand their consent before a project is conceptualised. Movements emphasise the right of oustees to question the project, contrary to the expectation that they should only be concerned with individual gains.

• Development Policy and Projects: Struggles regarding displacement and resettlement are directly linked to development policy and projects. Major people’s struggles have strongly questioned the process of development-induced displacements. While these struggles may not totally reject displacement, they advocate that all ongoing and future displacement should be considered in light of past experiences, with public purpose and manageability being key criteria. Emphasis is also placed on resource mapping, alternatives to large projects, and sustainable, eco-friendly projects that empower communities.

• Dominant Development Model and Displacement: The dominant model of economic development in India often includes large projects that cause mass displacement, particularly of tribals, dalits, and other marginalised groups. Examples include dams, reservoirs, irrigation projects, and urban infrastructure.

• Historical Perspective: The problem of development-induced displacement began before independence but intensified due to planned development. The nature of displacement has also evolved from process-induced to direct loss of livelihood.

  • Pre-Independence: Colonial policies on displacement existed, and laws like the Calcutta law of 1824 and others aimed to ease land acquisition. These culminated in the Land Acquisition Act, 1894.

  • Post-Independence: The government assumed a dominant role in development, leading to the impoverishment of many. A major concern has been the low number of resettled individuals.

• Paradigm of Development: The approach to development significantly contributes to displacement. After independence, the focus on industrial projects with sophisticated technology and massive dams, like Hirakud (which Nehru called a “temple of modern India”), led to significant displacement. While infrastructure was needed, the focus on economic growth often neglected the social sector and the consequences of displacement, particularly for rural and tribal populations.

• Features of Post-Independence Displacement: Six key features include:

  • Lack of a comprehensive database of displaced and rehabilitated people.

  • A much lesser number of resettled DPs.

  • Widespread ignorance about the problem of displacement.

  • A wide range of social strata among DPs and PAPs.

  • Multiple displacements due to the absence of long-term planning.

  • The near impossibility of measuring the pain and distress of displacement.

• Types of Projects and Displacement: The pattern of development in the latter half of the 20th century in India prioritised industrial projects and massive dams, leading to displacement.

• Defining DPs and PAPs:

  • Displaced Persons (DPs): Those forced to move out of their land when development projects require their homesteads. This also includes those displaced due to land displacement.

  • Project Affected Persons (PAPs): Those who lose their livelihood and/or assets fully or partially without being displaced. This can include the acquisition of common property resources (CPRs) like forests or fishing grounds. Indirect DPs are forced to move due to environmental degradation or waste disposal from projects affecting land fertility and health.

  • Recently, the definition has broadened to include restricted access to protected areas and occupational/economic dislocation beyond geographical relocation.

• Preponderance of Marginalised Groups: Dalits and tribals are overwhelmingly among the DPs and PAPs in most cases of displacement, making them the worst sufferers.

• Low Resettlement Rates: Only a smaller percentage of displaced people have been resettled, leaving the rest impoverished. Studies indicate that only about a third of DPs have been resettled even partially.

• Inadequate Resettlement Practices: Decision-makers often meticulously plan the financial and technical aspects of projects but give little effort to understanding the living patterns and needs of affected people for resettlement planning. The specificity of problems faced by marginalised groups, women, and children is often ignored. Resettlement often fails to provide new jobs or the jobs require skills that only dominant groups possess. Sometimes, job provision is linked to the amount of land lost, sidelining Dalits, tribals, and women. Displacement can push DPs into new economies they cannot cope with, leading to trauma and other issues.

• Policy Initiatives: The Ministry of Rural Development formulated a National Policy on Resettlement and Rehabilitation for Project Affected Families in 2004.

• Early Resistance: The Mulshi-Peta Struggle (1918-1922) was an early organised protest against displacement due to the Tata Group's dam projects. However, this struggle was unsuccessful.

• Future Trends: Future trends in displacement continue to be a concern.

• Liberalisation and Displacement: Liberalisation has implications for land acquisition and displacement.

• Consciousness and Neglect: Despite the massive scale of displacement, consciousness about it remains low, and rehabilitation has been neglected in most projects.