Neuroscience

• Neuroscience – how the nervous system and the brain works towards understanding our behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes

• Central Nervous System – processes all information received from our sense organs and reacts as necessary

• Neurons – nerve cells that transmit information throughout the NS
  

• Dendrites – receive messages from other nerve cells

• Axon – transmit impulses to other neurons

• Synapses – connections to other neurons

• Action Potentials – electric impulses where information is transmitted

• Terminal button – end of axon

• Synaptic Cleft – space between terminal button of one neuron and the dendrite of another

• Neurotransmitters – biochemicals that are released from the axon of one neuron and transmit the impulse to the dendrite receptors of another neuron

  • Excitatory – increase the likelihood that the connecting neuron will fire

  • Inhibitory – decrease the likelihood that the connecting neurons will fire

• Glial Cells – modulate neurotransmitter activity

 Brain

• Brain Stem – lower and more ancient part of the brain; essential for autonomic functioning such as breathing, heartbeat, etc.

  • Hindbrain – contains the medulla, pons, and cerebellum; regulates many autonomic activities such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion

  • Cerebellum – controls motor coordination abnormalities associated with autism

  • Midbrain – coordinates movements with sensory input and contains parts of reticular activating system (contributes to sleep, arousal and tension)

  • Thalamus and Hypothalamus – involves in regulating behavior, emotions, and hormones

• Limbic System – located around the edge of the center of the brain

  • Hippocampus, Cingulate Gyrus, Septum, and Amygdala

  • Regulate emotional experiences and expressions and, to some extent, our ability to learn and to control impulses

  • Also involved with the basic drives of sex, aggression, hunger and thirst

• Basal Ganglia – base of the forebrain, includes caudate nucleus

  • Damage involved changing our posture or twitching or shaking

• Cerebral Cortex – provides us with our distinctly human qualities, allowing us to look to the future and plan, to reason, and to create

  • Left Hemisphere – responsible for verbal and other cognitive processes

  • Right Hemisphere – perceiving the world around us and creating images

  • Lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal

  • Prefrontal Cortex – area responsible for higher cognitive functions

  • HPA Axis – Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Adrenal Cortex

 Peripheral Nervous System

• Somatic Nervous System – controls the muscles

• Autonomic Nervous System – regulate cardiovascular system and endocrine system

  • Sympathetic – fight or flight responses

  • Parasympathetic – calms the sympathetic nervous system; rest and digest functions

• Endocrine System – glands produce hormones that is released to the blood streams

  • Pituitary – master gland

  • Thyroid – controls metabolism and growth (thyroxine)

  • Parathyroid – controls the levels of calcium

  • Adrenal – controls metabolism, blood pressure, sex development, stress (epinephrine)

  • Pineal – releases melatonin

  • Pancreas – creates insulin

  • Testes – makes sperm and release testosterone

  • Ovaries – releases estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

 Neurotransmitters

• Agonist – effectively increase the activity of the neurotransmitters

• Antagonist  –  decrease or block neurotransmitter

• Inverse Agonists – produces effects opposite to those produced by the neurotransmitters

• Reuptake – neurotransmitter is released, quickly broken down and brought back to the synaptic cleft

• Glutamate – excitatory neurotransmitters that turns on many different neurons leading to action

  • High levels is linked to Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and Huntington’s

• Low levels is linked to learning and memory issues

• Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid/GABA – inhibitory neurotransmitter

  • Inhibit the transmission of information and action potential

  • Benzodiazepines – make it easier for GABA to attach themselves to the receptors of specialized neurons

  • Reduces levels of anger, hostility, aggression, and perhaps even more positive emotional states

  • Decreased GABA activity = mood disorders, anxiety, schizophrenia, ASD

• Serotonin – regulates our behavior, moods and thought processes

  • Low levels = less inhibition and with instability, impulsivity and the tendency to overreact, aggression, suicide, and excessive sexual behavior

  • High levels = interact with GABA to counteract glutamate

  • Selective-Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) – affects serotonin more directly and are used to treat number of psychological disorder

• Norepinephrine – stimulate at least two groups of receptors called alpha-adrenergic and beta- adrenergic receptors

  • High levels = high blood pressure, arrythmia, etc.

  • Low levels = anxiety, depression, ADHD, headaches, memory problems, etc.

• Dopamine – implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and disorders of addiction

  • Low levels = less motivated

  • High levels = more competitive, aggressive and poor impulse control

• Endorphin – relieves pain, reduce stress, improves well-being