Qualitative Research Methods

The most important research methods used in qualitative research:

• Observations
• Interviews
• Case Study

(Focus group and content analysis not required)

Observations

• The focus of the research is on how people interact, interpret each other’s behavior, and act upon these interpretations in a natural setting.
• The researcher believes that meaningful knowledge in the research area cannot be generated without observation.
• Observation allows the researcher to become immersed deeply in the studied phenomenon, sometimes even becoming part of it.
• Strength - almost first-hand experience gained.

Types of observation

Naturalistic Observation:

• Naturalistic observation is carried out in naturally occurring settings, a place that has not been arranged for the study.
• Disadvantage - May be time-consuming because the behavior of interest only occurs at certain times.

Overt Observations

• Occurs when participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed.
• Advantage - the ethics of this approach are a strength as participants give their informed consent.
• Disadvantage - When people know they are being observed, they can intentionally or unintentionally change their behavior.

Covert Observations

• The researcher does not inform the members of the group about the reasons for his or her presence.
• Advantages - gaining access to groups that would not normally agree to participate in research (for example, socially isolated or violent groups). Another strength is the avoidance of participant bias—subjects do not know they are being observed, so they behave naturally.
• Disadvantage - Participants do not give their consent to take part in the study.
• Solution - debrief participants after the observation session and ask for consent prior to using the data for research.

Participant observation

• In this method, the observer becomes a part of the observed group.
• Advantage - allow the researcher to gain first-hand experiences with the phenomenon of interest, gaining valuable insights.
• Disadvantages - the risk that the observer will lose objectivity as he or she becomes too involved with the studied group of individuals. This may happen because the researcher identifies themselves with the group. Ethical issue: if participants do not realize that one member of their group is in fact an observer collecting information, this may be ethically questionable, especially in sensitive research topics.

Structured and Unstructured Observations

• In structured observation, information is recorded systematically and in a standardized way.
• Structured observation operates with numbers rather than text.
• Unstructured observations do not have a pre-defined structure; observers simply register whatever behaviors they find noteworthy.

Interview

• Interviews help to gain insight into subjective experiences and interpretations.
• Since attitudes, values, patterns of interpretation, and other subjective phenomena are unobservable, the most straightforward way to study them is to rely on the participants’ verbal reports.
• Interviews may help to understand the meanings participants attach to certain events and their points of view.
• In-depth individual interviews are useful when the topic is too sensitive for people to discuss in a group setting.
• Interview data comes as an audio or video recording which is converted to an interview transcript.

Types of Interview

• Structured interviews
• Semi-structured interviews
• Unstructured interviews

Structured interviews

• Include a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a fixed order.
• Most useful when the research project involves multiple interviewers and is essential that they all conduct the sessions similarly. This allows many participants to be interviewed and some comparisons to be made.

Semi-structured interviews

• Semi-structured interviews do not specify an order or a particular set of questions.
• The researcher knows certain questions must be asked, but beyond that, he or she can ask follow-up questions to get clarification. If it better fits the natural flow of the conversation, the researcher can change the question order.
• Semi-structured interviews are better suited for smaller research projects, but they are also more effective in studying the unique experiences of each participant.

Unstructured interviews

• Mostly participant-driven, and every next question is determined by the interviewee’s answer to the previous one.

Researcher still has to keep in mind the overall purpose of the research and stay focused on exploring a particular topic. However, two different interviewees may end up getting very different questions.

Case study

• A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual or a group.
• Case studies can involve a variety of other methods (observations, interviews, and so on), anything that deepens our understanding of an individual or a group of interest.
• The individual or group that is the object of a case study is unique. As a result, the purpose is to gain a deep understanding of this particular individual or group.
• Sampling is not an issue: you are interested in this case, not the population this case “represents”.
• There is less focus on generalizability. Findings do get generalized, but this is a by-product of the in-depth description and explanation of the case (case-to-case and theoretical generalization)

.The case is studied thoroughly, using a combination of different methods, and often longitudinally.

Reasons for using Case study

• Case studies are useful in investigating phenomena that could not be studied otherwise.

Case studies can contradict established theories and help develop new theories.

Disadvantages of a case study

• Researcher bias can be a problem as, because of the longitudinal nature of the study, researchers might get too involved.
• Participant bias is also a potential problem. The participant interacts with the researcher for a long period and it is easier for the participant to become susceptible to acquiescence, social desirability, and so on.
• The generalization of findings is especially problematic from a single case to other settings or to a wider population. Generalization depends on the thickness of descriptions and triangulation (other researchers, other case studies, and so on).
• Case studies are especially demanding in terms of anonymity and confidentiality—it is difficult to preserve the anonymity of unique cases.
• In case studies of patients with brain damage, it may be difficult to obtain informed consent because they might not fully realize the terms of the document. In cases like this, the parent or spouse has overall responsibility for the patient and gives consent.