South American Revolutions

Change in the Americas

The South American Revolutions

The Spread of Revolution

The Latin American Wars of Independence, occurring during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, were heavily influenced by the American and French Revolutions. These conflicts ultimately led to the establishment of several independent nations in Latin America.

Learning Objectives

  • Relate the South American Revolutions to the American and French Revolutions.

Key Takeaways
Key Points

  1. Revolutionary Context: The revolutionary fervor evident in the 18th century, notably spurred by Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality, sparked significant political upheaval globally. This revolutionary wave initiated with the American Revolution in 1776 and continued with the French Revolution in 1789.

  2. Inspiration from European Revolutions: The principles proclaimed by European revolutionaries and their success in dismantling the autocratic monarchy inspired similar independence movements across Latin America, beginning with Haiti (known as the French colony Saint Domingue). The Haitian Revolution started shortly after the commencement of the French Revolution, evolving into a rebellion led initially by white settlers seeking control over their colonies, which transformed into a slave-led uprising against slavery and colonization.

  3. Continued Rebellion: The notion of rebellion against tyranny and colonialism spread throughout the Americas, yielding varying degrees of success.

Key Terms

  • Libertadores: The term for principal leaders who spearheaded the Latin American wars of independence against Spain and Portugal. Primarily composed of bourgeois criollos (local-born individuals of European ancestry), they were influenced by liberal ideologies and frequently had military training from their home countries.

  • Peninsular War: This conflict arose from the Napoleonic occupation of Spain and led Spanish Creoles in Spanish America to reevaluate their allegiance to Spain. This introspection catalyzed independence movements, culminating in wars that lasted nearly two decades.

  • Napoleonic Wars: Major conflicts between the French Empire (led by Napoleon I) and various European powers, primarily led and financed by the United Kingdom. The unresolved disputes stemming from the French Revolution escalated into prolonged combat until the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. The return to hostilities the following year initiated over a decade of warfare, significantly impacting global history by fostering nationalism, liberalism, independence in Latin America, and altering territorial configurations in Europe.

  • Haitian Revolution: An anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection in the former French colony Saint Domingue from 1791 to 1804 that affected the institution of slavery throughout the Americas. This revolution culminated in the establishment of Haiti as a sovereign nation composed entirely of freed individuals.

Historical Context and Political Development

During the Latin American wars of independence, discussions emerged about forming a regional federation to safeguard newly acquired autonomy. However, repeated failures of such projects delayed re-examination of this concept until the late 19th century.

Impact of the Peninsular War

Napoleon’s usurpation of the Spanish throne, including the capture of King Fernando VII, catalyzed the establishment of Spanish assemblies post-1810 by Criollos striving for the restoration of sovereignty based on the pre-existing legal frameworks.

Emergence of Self-Governance

  1. Crisis of Legitimacy: The Napoleonic invasion incited a political legitimacy crisis in the Spanish Empire, inciting reactions from its overseas colonies. The territorial areas that were newly formed as viceroyalties achieved independence sooner than the strongholds of Spanish power, such as Mexico and Peru.

  2. Continued Colonization: Two notable exceptions in this liberation movement were Cuba and Puerto Rico; these remained under Spanish control until the 1898 Spanish-American War.

  3. The Portuguese Influence: Concurrently, the Portuguese monarchy's relocation to Brazil during the French occupation of Portugal further complicated the independence movements, with Prince Pedro later declaring Brazil’s independence.

The Haitian Revolution: A Case Study

The Haitian Revolution stands out as a successful anti-colonial struggle that thoroughly influenced slavery perceptions across the continent. Initially, the revolution was seen as a response to the transformative ideas stemming from the French Revolution, which paradoxically extended the question of rights to include all men.

  1. Radical Changes Following the French Revolution: The Declaration of the Rights of Man published in France inspired wealthy inhabitants in Saint-Domingue initially seeking independence for the planters, but the struggle soon became a more extensive anti-slavery revolt. The influence of the French Revolution was significant, radicalizing pre-existing conflicts around slavery.

  2. Key Events: The declaration of freedom granted to slaves in 1792 and subsequent events up to Haiti's independence in 1804 highlighted the revolution's global resonance, denoting Haiti as a critical case of successful resistance against colonial rule.

Simón Bolívar: The Liberator of South America

Military and Political Ascendance

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) emerged as a pivotal figure during the Latin American wars of independence, advocating for the formation of a unified Latin America across various revolutionary campaigns.

  1. Bolívar’s Background: Born into a wealthy Creole family, Bolívar absorbed Enlightenment ideas during his education in Europe, prompting his ambition to resist Spanish control. He utilized the political upheaval caused by the Peninsular War to ignite Venezuela's revolutionary efforts.

  2. Military Campaigns: Bolívar's military career spanned from 1811 to 1830, leading to the formation of several South American nations from Spanish colonies—namely Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

  3. Establishment of Gran Colombia: Bolívar founded Gran Colombia in 1819 as a significant stride toward Latin American unity, alongside multiple military missions aimed at liberating other territories from Spanish rule.

Key Challenges Faced by Bolívar

  1. Internal Conflict: Bolívar struggled against internal divisions among republican leaders, hindering his vision for unity amid rising nationalism only after the wars concluded.

  2. Dissolution of Gran Colombia: Despite Bolívar's best intentions to unite Hispanic America, Gran Colombia faced considerable political instability and was formally dissolved in 1831 due to internal strife.

José de San Martín: A Parallel Struggle

Overview of Leadership

José de San Martín (1778-1850) played an equally important role in the Latin American independence movement, leading campaigns in Argentina, Chile, and Peru.

  1. Formation of the Army of the Andes: San Martín's strategy involved organizing an army capable of undertaking the massive task of liberating the southern territories from Spanish rule through the formidable Crossing of the Andes.

  2. Leadership in Peru: After liberating Chile, San Martín declared Peru's independence in 1821 but strategically resigned command shortly thereafter, ceding further efforts to Bolívar.

Meeting at Guayaquil

  1. Guayaquil Conference: On July 26, 1822, San Martín and Bolívar met to discuss the future of their joint efforts in Peru. Their distinct visions for governance led to disagreements, resulting in San Martín’s abdication.

Conclusion: The Legacy of the Independence Movements

The independence movements throughout Latin America were marked by grand aspirations and intense struggles shaped by both internal factions and external pressures. The individual contributions of leaders such as Bolívar and San Martín remain pivotal in understanding the broader narrative of Latin American liberation and the attempts toward regional unity. Despite their failures to maintain the political boundaries envisioned, their legacies remain profoundly influential in contemporary South American history.

Citations