Regents High School Examination Study Notes: Earth Science (June 16, 2023)

Regents High School Examination: Physical Setting/Earth Science (June 16, 2023)

Examination Logistics and Requirements

• Date and Time: Friday, June 16, 2023, from $9:15\,a.m.$ to $12:15\,p.m.$
• Prohibited Items: Any communications device usage or possession results in examination invalidation and no score calculation.
• Required Materials:     - 2011 Edition Reference Tables for Physical Setting/Earth Science.     - Four-function or scientific calculator.
• Structure:     - Part A and Part B-1: Multiple-choice questions recorded on separate answer sheets.     - Part B-2 and Part C: Answers recorded in a separate answer booklet.     - All writing in the answer booklet must be in pen, except for graphs and drawings, which must be in pencil.
• Certification: Students must sign a declaration of honesty; failure to sign prevents acceptance of the answer sheet/booklet.

Astronomy and Universe Mechanics

• The Milky Way Galaxy: Described as one of billions of galaxies in the universe.
• Galactic Motion: Wavelengths of light from the most distant galaxies are red-shifted, providing evidence of an expanding universe.
• Earth\'s Revolution:     - The approximate rate of Earth\'s revolution around the Sun is $1^{\circ}/\text{day}$.     - Earth’s travel in an orbit around the Sun is the reason different constellations are observed at different times of the year.
• Earth’s Rotation:     - The Foucault pendulum provides evidence of Earth’s rotation through the apparent change in the direction of its swing.     - Earth rotates on its axis at a rate of approximately $15^{\circ}/\text{hour}$.
• Time Zones: Based on Earth’s rate of rotation.
• Solar System Classification: Jupiter is classified as a Jovian planet based on its low density and large diameter.
• Insolation and Seasons:     - On March 21 (Equinox), as the Sun’s direct rays move northward, the intensity of insolation increases for the Northern Hemisphere (Location A) and decreases for the Southern Hemisphere (Location B) over the following three months.     - The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves northward after the Northern Hemisphere’s spring equinox following the path of the Sun’s direct rays.
• Celestial Geometry:     - King Tides: Extremely high spring tides occurring when the Moon is at perigee (closest to Earth) and Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are aligned.     - Tidal Predictability: Tides are cyclic and predictable due to the regular motions of the Earth and Moon.     - Eclipses: A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through Earth’s umbra (the darker part of its shadow).     - Orbits: Planets and satellites travel in elliptical orbits with the central object at one focus.

Planetary Science and Stellar Evolution

• Impact Craters: Formed primarily by the collision of asteroids with the Earth.
• Life Cycle of a Sun-like Star:     - Nebula: A large cloud of gas (mainly hydrogen) and dust where gravity initiates contraction.     - Protostar: A rotating, contracting clump heating up to $3000\,K$ with a luminosity $10 \times$ the Sun.     - Main Sequence: Nuclear fusion of hydrogen begins; internal pressure balances gravity; maintains size/brightness for $80\%$ of its life; surface temp $\\approx 5500\,K$.     - Giant: Hydrogen fuel is exhausted; the star collapses and then expands; surface temp drops to $3000\,K$ while luminosity increases to $2000 \times$ the Sun.     - White Dwarf: Supply of nuclear fuel ends; diameter shrinks to roughly Earth-sized; surface temp reaches $13,000\,K$; luminosity drops to $0.001 \times$ the Sun.

Meteorology and Atmospheric Science

• Atmospheric Layers:     - Troposphere: Temperature constantly decreases with altitude from the surface to roughly $12\,km$.     - Stratosphere: Temperature increases with altitude (e.g., from $12\,km$ to $24\,km$).
• Energy Transfer: Solar energy reaches Earth’s atmosphere via radiation.
• Atmospheric Composition: Oxygen production in Earth’s early atmosphere resulted from the evolution of oxygen-producing organisms.
• Weather Variables:     - Station Models: Report variables such as temperature ($73^{\circ}\text{F}$), dewpoint ($72^{\circ}\text{F}$), and visibility (e.g., $2\,\text{miles}$).     - Instruments: Anemometers measure wind speed.     - Humidity and Clouds: Air rising along the ITCZ causes cooling and condensation into clouds due to the convergence of low-pressure air.
• Phase Changes of Water:     - Changing $5\,g$ of ice to liquid water at $0^{\circ}\text{C}$ (Heat of Fusion) requires $1670\,J$ ($5\,g \times 334\,J/g$).
• Storm Dynamics:     - Hurricanes: Inverse relationship between barometric pressure and wind speed; lower pressure correlates to higher wind velocity.     - Warm Fronts: Occur when warm air rises over cooler, denser air.     - Low Pressure Systems: Follow a normal storm track toward the Northeast in the United States.     - Lake Effect Snow: Caused by cold air (cP - continental Polar) moving over warmer lake water (e.g., Lake Michigan).

Geology and Earth Internal Structure

• Internal Properties:     - Continental Crust: Thicker and less dense than oceanic crust.     - Oceanic Crust: Thinner and more dense ($3.0\,g/cm^3$) compared to continental crust ($2.7\,g/cm^3$).     - Inner Core: Inferred to be more dense than the outer core and in a solid state.
• Seismology:     - P-waves travel faster than S-waves.     - Example: At $4000\,km$, an S-wave arriving at $1:05:40\,p.m.$ indicates a P-wave arrival closer to $1:00:00\,p.m.$.
• Plate Tectonics:     - Mariana Trench: Formed by the subduction of the Pacific Plate under the Philippine Plate.     - Mid-Ocean Ridges: Locations where igneous bedrock shows patterns of normal and reverse magnetic polarity.     - East African Rift System:         - Began $25 \times 10^6\,\text{years}$ ago; stretches over $3000\,km$.         - Split the African Plate into the Nubian Plate (moving West) and Somalian Plate (moving East).         - In $2005$, a portion spread by an additional $26\,feet$, filled with $600 \times 10^9\,\text{gallons}$ of basalt.
• Rock Types and Composition:     - United States Crushed Stone (2017): Total production of $1.3 \times 10^9\,\text{tons}$.         - Limestone and Dolostone: $70\%$.         - Granite: $13\%$.         - Trap Rock (mafic igneous): $6\%$         - Sandstone/Quartzite: $4\%$     - Mineral Properties:         - Hardness: Quartzite scratches truck beds easier than limestone because it consists of harder minerals.         - Chemical Weathering: Iron in basalt reacts with oxygen to form iron oxide (rust).         - Gneiss Minerals: Most likely quartz, mica, and feldspar.         - Almandine Garnet: Formula is $Fe_3Al_2Si_3O_{12}$; commonly used in jewelry.         - Andesite: Fine-grained igneous rock ($57\%$ plagioclase, $28\%$ amphibole, $15\%$ biotite).

Surface Processes and Hydrology

• Porosity: Uniformly sorted beads of different sizes (e.g., in containers A, B, and C) have the same porosity.
• River Dynamics:     - Erosion: Occurs on the outside of meander curves where water moves faster.     - Deposition: Occurs on the inside of meander curves; forms features like deltas at the mouth of a river (e.g., Horton River at Franklin Bay).     - Abrasion: Causes rounding of rock particles as they collide with one another during transport.
• Mass Movement: Rock slides on hillsides are often triggered by prolonged heavy rains.
• Glacial Evidence: Parallel grooves/striations in bedrock indicate that ice sheets once advanced over New York State.
• Orographic Effect:     - Windward side: Cool and moist air.     - Leeward side: Warm and dry air (Rain Shadow effect).

Earth History and Stratigraphy

• Geochronology:     - Carbon-14 (${}^{14}C$): Used for dating organic remains, such as a woolly rhinoceros tooth ($39,400\,\text{years}$ old).     - Uranium-238 (${}^{238}U$): Used for extremely old samples like zircon crystals ($4.4 \times 10^9\,\text{years}$ old).     - Potassium-40 (${}^{40}K$): Used for older sedimentary layers.
• Index Fossils:     - Must exist over a large geographic region for a short period of geological time.     - Mucrospirifer: Example index fossil.     - Ammonoids: Presence indicates a past marine (ocean water) environment.
• Stratigraphy Principles:     - Superposition: Original horizontal layers were deposited first.     - Cross-cutting: Igneous intrusions or faults are younger than the rocks they cut through.     - Unconformities: Gaps in the rock record (labeled X and Y in diagrams) caused by erosion.
• Geological Periods: The iridium-enriched sediment layer was deposited at the end of the Cretaceous Period (approx. $65.5 \times 10^6\,\text{years}$ ago).

Field Skills and Mapping

• Topography:     - Contour Intervals: The vertical change in elevation between adjacent contour lines (e.g., $10\,feet$).     - Gradient Calculation: $\frac{\text{Change in Elevation}}{\text{Distance}}$.     - Stream Flow Direction: Determined by the direction the "V" shapes in contour lines point (they point upstream, so water flows the opposite way).     - Profiles: Side-view representations of elevation changes across a line on a map.
• Latitude and Longitude:     - Altitude of Polaris equals the observer’s latitude in the Northern Hemisphere (e.g., if Polaris is at $41^{\circ}$, the latitude is $41^{\circ}N$).

Questions & Discussion

• Exam Logistics Dialogue: Instructions emphasized that possession of communications devices is strictly prohibited. Before starting, students were verified to have the 2011 Edition Reference Tables and a calculator.
• Case Study: King Tides: How does climate change impact King Tides? Rising sea levels cause these tides to reach further inland, increasing flooding risks on low-lying shorelines.
• Problem Set: Star Properties:     - Stage: Nebula -> Description: Large cloud of gas and dust.     - Stage: Protostar -> Description: Early star; contracting/heating clump.     - Stage: Giant -> Description: Expanding star with lowering surface temp and increasing luminosity.     - Force for nebula contraction: Gravity.     - Nuclear fuel gas: Hydrogen.