6-4 "Us versus Them": Issues in Modern Policing
The four-minute video released by New York City’s Sergeants Benevolent Association is titled "Blue Racism." In this video, the narrator speaks over news coverage footage of attacks on police officers, stating, "The average person doesn’t see those things that make me human." He emphasizes that others don’t view him based on his racial identity—whether African American, Latino, Asian, or Caucasian—but instead through a broader, more negative stereotype associated with being a police officer, saying, "When they look at me, they see blue."
The "Blue Racism" video emerged as a response to the nationwide anti-police sentiment sparked by a series of high-profile incidents in which unarmed suspects were harmed or killed by law enforcement. The adverse reaction was amplified by the prevalence of smartphone video recordings capturing these events, especially when they involved white police officers and minority suspects. A quote from a St. Louis-area police supervisor reflects the deep-seated frustration within these communities: "We feel like we’re pawns in a game right now. It’s almost like there’s an agenda and we’re being used on both sides, the left and the right, to further that agenda." This sense of disillusionment highlights
6-4a Police Subculture
The term "police subculture" refers to the shared values and norms within law enforcement agencies that shape the attitudes and behaviors of officers.
According to a national poll, 86% of police officers believe the public does not understand the risks and challenges they face.
This disconnect is a hallmark of police subculture, rooted in the specific challenges of law enforcement, including danger and stress.
Core Values of Police Subculture
Learning Objective 6: Describe the process of socialization in police subculture.
Socialization begins on the first day of training, where rookies learn values and rules of police work.
Key rituals in the socialization process include:
Attending a police academy.
Partnering with a senior officer who imparts wisdom about police work and life.
Making the initial felony arrest, marking a significant milestone in an officer's career.
Using force for the first time, solidifying the realities of police work.
Witnessing major traumatic incidents, which reinforces the disconnect from the civilian world.
The experience of shared challenges leads officers to develop a belief that only their peers can understand their job, resulting in an "us versus them" mentality.
Sociologist William Westley described this mentality as the "blue curtain" or the "blue wall of silence," referring to the protective barriers created between police and civilians.
Police Cynicism
Police cynicism involves a widespread distrust of humanity and a bleak outlook on human behavior.
A rejection of the ideals of truth and justice becomes common among cynical officers, leading them to prioritize subcultural norms over official legal standards.
This cynicism complicates accountability, making it challenging for officers to testify against one another, even in cases of clear misconduct.
Trust among officers is emphasized in the police culture, fostering a reluctance to challenge a partner's actions.
Tensions between the public and law enforcement contribute to a mindset where police view themselves as underappreciated and overburdened.
The demand for police officers to use force, combined with the inherent dangers of their work, further exacerbates cynicism within the police subculture.
6-4b The Physical Dangers of Police Work
Scott Mayberry, the police chief of Fort Bragg, California, was involved in a high-speed chase where deputy Rick Del Fiorentino was ambushed and left with no hope of rescue.
Officers Killed and Assaulted
About 175 police officers die in the line of duty each year in the United States.
Deputy Rick Del Fiorentino was a victim of an ambush, which is more common in the 2010s compared to previous decades.
Annually, approximately 60,000 assaults are committed against police officers, with 30% resulting in injury.
Police experts John S. Dempsey and Linda S. Forst highlight the dangers faced by officers as they deal constantly with unpredictable human behavior.
Despite the dangers, police officers experience relatively low death and injury rates due to:
Emphasis on officer safety in police academies, including:
Self-defense
Firearm proficiency
Arrest tactics
Nonlethal weapons
Extraordinary precautions by officers, such as wearing protective body armor made of Kevlar.
71% of U.S. local police departments require patrol officers to wear body armor at all times.
The use of body armor has saved thousands of lives.
Accidental Deaths
Contrary to popular belief, many deaths and injuries to police officers result from accidents rather than assaults.
Approximately 50% of all law enforcement officer injuries are due to accidents, predominantly occurring during non-arrest activities.
From 2018 to April 2020, there were 113 deaths due to traffic-related accidents, compared to 116 from gunfire.
A significant reason for traffic fatalities is that many officers do not wear seat belts; 43% of those killed in accidents were not strapped in.
Craig Floyd from the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund emphasizes that while almost every police officer will engage in high-speed responses or chases, only 10% will be involved in a gunfight, indicating a training imbalance between driving and firearms.
6-4c Stress and the Mental Dangers of Police Work
Police work entails considerable mental pressure and stress, with significant health implications.
Research by Professor John Violanti from the University at Buffalo shows that police officers experience unusually high levels of cortisol, the "stress hormone," linked to health issues such as diabetes and heart disease.
Retired police lieutenant Frank Borelli notes inadequate training on managing long-term emotional trauma in police work.
Police Stressors
Learning Objective 7: Define a police stressor and list some stressors that impact the mental health of law enforcement agents.
Stressors are conditions causing stress, specific to police work include:
Constant fear of being a victim of violent crime.
Exposure to violent crime and victims.
Necessity to comply with legal standards in every action.
Lack of community support.
Negative media coverage.
Internal pressures include:
Limited career advancement opportunities.
Excessive paperwork.
Low wages and benefits.
Both male and female officers confront these stressors; female officers particularly experience sexism, sexual harassment, and the demand to prove themselves in a male-dominated environment.
The Consequences of Police Stress
Police stress can lead to significant health consequences:
Elevated blood pressure and heart problems noted in the study.
Over half of surveyed officers screened positive for alcohol misuse (Elizabeth Mumford's study).
Compassion fatigue can develop, leading to a loss of empathy for victims or the community due to repeated exposure to trauma.
Retired officers report that stress profoundly impacts communication and overall interactions with others.
Burnout and PTSD
Overwhelming stress can result in burnout, causing listlessness and ineffectiveness.
PTSD, recognized in war veterans and victims, can occur in police officers after traumatic events such as the death of a fellow officer.
Symptoms of PTSD in officers include:
Re-experiencing trauma through nightmares and flashbacks.
Withdrawal from social interactions.
Experiencing “survival guilt,” leading to sleep and memory issues.
Professor Violanti suggests that 9-19% of police may develop PTSD during their careers.
Fort Bragg police chief Mayberry experienced severe anxiety after a traumatic incident and eventually retired due to PTSD symptoms.
Coping Ability
Many officers witness more disturbing incidents in their early years than the average person sees in a lifetime.
Despite higher suicide rates, many officers develop coping mechanisms to manage the stresses of their role.
Psychologist Steven Sultan found that most deputies involved in shootings returned to duty without severe difficulties, indicating resilience.
The common stoic persona among officers may mask emotional trauma, influenced by fears for their reputations and careers.
Overview of Police Use of Force
The police subculture is influenced by the inherent dangers of the job and is expressed through authority.
Symbols of authority (uniform, badge, nightstick, firearm) establish the power police officers hold over civilians.
Authority and respect are often equated with the ability to use force in policing.
It is accepted that police use of force is sometimes necessary for effective law enforcement.
Incidences of Force
Use of physical force by law enforcement occurs in only about 1% of the 53.5 million annual police-public encounters.
However, the Department of Justice estimates that officers threaten or use force in encounters with about 1 million civilians yearly.
From June 2015 to March 2016, there were almost 1,900 potential arrest-related deaths in the U.S.
Police officers are often justified in using force for self-defense, to make arrests, prevent escapes, and protect property.
A significant percentage of emergency room physicians (98%) reported treating victims of excessive police force.
Use-of-force matrices are created by law enforcement agencies to provide guidance on appropriate responses to different levels of contact with civilians.
Learning Objective 8: Types of Force
Nondeadly Force: Force not likely to cause death or serious injury; regulated by the concept of reasonable force.
E.g., Henry County officer David Rose was fired for excessive use of nondeadly force on an unarmed, compliant suspect.
Deadly Force: Force that poses a significant threat of injury or death; justified if the officer believes it necessary for protection.
Approximately 1,000 fatalities each year result from police shootings, according to The Washington Post.
Example of the Orlando Police Department’s Use-of-Force Matrix demonstrating the appropriate level of force based on suspect behavior:
No resistance: officer presence
Verbal noncompliance: verbal command
Passive resistance: hands-on tactics, chemical spray
Active resistance: intermediate weapons (baton, Taser)
Aggressive resistance: intensified techniques, nonlethal force
Deadly force resistance: deadly force
The United States Supreme Court and Use of Force
Tennessee v. Garner (1985): the Supreme Court stated that deadly force is unjustified unless a suspect poses an imminent threat to the officer or others.
Resulted in changes to twenty-three states' fleeing felon laws.
Graham v. Connor (1989): established that the reasonableness of an officer’s use of force is evaluated based on the situation at the moment, not hindsight.
A Supreme Court ruling in 2004 indicated that use of force could be deemed reasonable, even if it was objectively unnecessary in terms of officer safety.
Discretion in Action: Deadly Force Case Study
Tamir Rice Incident: An exploration of whether Officer Loehmann's actions were justified based on the belief that Tamir posed a threat while holding a pellet gun.
The discussion centers on legal standards allowing deadly force and the immediate decision-making police officers must engage in under distressing situations.
Reforming Reasonable Force
Nationwide calls for police reform sought to redefine reasonableness regarding use-of-force policies.
Example: Washington, D.C.'s law mandates that officers’ use of force must be objectively reasonable, rejecting purely subjective assessments.
Some jurisdictions, like Washington, D.C., and New York State, have banned police use of chokeholds regardless of circumstances.
Less Lethal Weapons
Police departments employ less lethal weapons to minimize the risk of serious injury or death during confrontations.
Common less lethal weapons: OC pepper spray, tear gas, water cannons, conducted energy devices (CEDs) like Tasers.
CEDs deliver substantial voltage (50,000 volts) for incapacitating suspects; over 90% of local law enforcement agencies utilize these devices.
Concerns exist regarding improper Taser use and potential health issues leading to injury or death; federal courts deem Taser use unreasonable without immediate threats.