psych106 week 1

Lecture Overview & Learning Objectives

• Topic: Motivation & Procrastination (delivered at the start of semester)

• Lecturer’s humour: procrastinated writing a talk about procrastination → personal learning experience

• After completing the class, students should be able to:

  • Define motivation in the simplest terms

  • Describe key psychological theories of motivation (historical ➜ modern)

  • Distinguish intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation

  • Identify causes & consequences of procrastination

  • Apply theories to their own academic / personal contexts

Defining Motivation

• “Internal process that initiates, directs & sustains goal-directed behaviour.”

  • Explains actions from basic (eating) to complex (studying for a degree)

• 3 core components (often tested):

  1. Direction – choice of goal/path (e.g., study group vs Netflix)

  2. Intensity – amount of effort (e.g., 10 h vs 1 h study)

  3. Persistence – duration despite obstacles (e.g., marathoner training in winter)

Why Motivation Matters

• Central to psychology: understanding & shaping behaviour

• Supports mental well-being, confidence, personal development

• Low motivation ⇒ feelings of boredom, meaninglessness, poor performance & satisfaction

Two Families of Motivation Theories

1. Content Theories – what energises people (needs & drives)

   • Maslow’s Hierarchy, Alderfer’s ERG, etc.

2. Process Theories – how motivation operates (cognitive & behavioural mechanisms)

   • Goal-Setting, Self-Determination, Behaviourism, etc.

   • Analogy: content = fuel ; process = engine

Historical Perspectives (Quick Timeline)

• Ancient Greece (Aristotle) → Hedonism: seek pleasure, avoid pain

• Enlightenment (1600–1700s)

  • Thomas Hobbes: humans act from self-interest to avoid pain

  • John Locke: born tabula rasa; pleasure/pain learned via experience

  • Both influential yet untested empirically

• Early Psychology (1800s–early 1900s)

  • Instinct theories (William James): curiosity, fear, jealousy, belonging all innate

  • Sigmund Freud: life (Eros) & death (Thanatos) instincts → include aggression & self-preservation

  • Animal analogies: ducklings follow mother; migrating birds; infant grasp/root reflexes

Content Theories in Detail

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943)

Self-Actualisation   ← self-fulfilment
Esteem Needs         ← psychological
Belonging/Love ≈---------------------
Safety Needs         ← basic
Physiological Needs  ← basic

• Lower levels must be satisfied before higher needs become motivational

• Student lens:

  • Physiological: rest, nutrition, health → focus & engagement

  • Safety: housing, finances, campus safety

  • Belonging: study groups, lecture attendance → community

  • Esteem: constructive feedback, recognition

  • Self-actualisation: learning for pure enjoyment (intrinsic)

Alderfer’s ERG Theory (1969)

• Existence ≈ physiological + safety

• Relatedness ≈ belonging + partial esteem

• Growth ≈ self-actualisation + remaining esteem

• Key upgrades to Maslow:

  • Needs can be pursued simultaneously; strict hierarchy not required

  • Frustration–Regression principle: blockage at a higher level may redirect effort to lower needs (e.g., academic setback → seek friendship support)

Process Theories

Goal-Setting Theory (Locke & Latham, 1990)

• Performance influenced by:

  • Direction of attention

  • Effort invested

  • Persistence maintained

  • Strategy development

• 5 Goal features (C-C-C-F-T):

  1. Clarity – specific, unambiguous (e.g., “raise grade by 15\%”)

  2. Challenge – difficult yet attainable (not “cure world hunger” solo)

  3. Commitment – personal buy-in essential

  4. Feedback – ongoing tracking/evaluation

  5. Task Complexity – allocate adequate time & resources

• Foundation for SMART goals (see later)

Self-Determination Theory – SDT (Deci & Ryan, 1985-2000s)

• Considered “gold-standard” contemporary theory

• Human growth & optimal function require satisfaction of 3 innate needs:

  1. Autonomy – sense of volition/control (e.g., choosing essay topic)

  2. Competence – feeling effective; mastery + constructive feedback

  3. Relatedness – connectedness & belonging (peer community)

• When needs met → greater intrinsic & autonomous extrinsic motivation; when thwarted → disengagement

• Classroom experiment: 3 000-word ungraded optional essay vs 1 000-word graded essay → majority choose latter ⇒ shows role of extrinsic drivers

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

SDT Motivation Continuum (Taxonomy)

A-Motivation → External → Introjected → Identified → Integrated → Intrinsic
 ^controlled                                                       ^autonomous

• A-motivation: no perceived value/competence

• External Regulation: reward/punishment driven

• Introjected: internal pressures (guilt, ego)

• Identified: personal importance recognised

• Integrated: aligns with core values; part of identity

• Intrinsic: inherent interest/enjoyment

Behaviourism / Reinforcement Theories

Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)

• Motivation = consequences that follow behaviour (observable only)

• Key contingencies:

  • Positive Reinforcement (+R) – add pleasant stimulus ← increases behaviour (e.g., praise for class participation)

  • Negative Reinforcement (–R) – remove unpleasant stimulus ← increases behaviour (e.g., cancel assignment if class performance high)

  • Positive Punishment (+P) – add unpleasant stimulus ← decreases behaviour (public reprimand for talking)

  • Negative Punishment (–P) – remove pleasant stimulus ← decreases behaviour (grade deduction for lateness)

  • Extinction – withholding reinforcement so behaviour fades (stop answering midnight emails ⇒ students stop sending)

• Critique: explains maintenance/change, not origin of behaviour; ignores internal states

Goal-Setting in Practice

• Humans are inherently goal-directed; even mundane daily plans are mini-goals

• Effective goals are:

  • Specific & challenging

  • Self-selected or co-created

  • Realistic (self-effic