New Beginnings: Cities and States - India's Second Urbanisation

The Principles of Statecraft and the Arthaśhāstra

According to Kauṭilya’s Arthaśhāstra, a kingdom must adhere to specific structural and economic principles to ensure its protection and prosperity:

• Fortification and Defense: The kingdom must be protected by fortifying the capital and the towns located at the frontiers.
• Self-Sufficiency: The land should be capable of sustaining not only the domestic population but also outsiders during times of calamities.
• Natural Resources: An ideal territory should be beautiful and endowed with:
  • Cultivable land and good pastures rich in cattle.
  • Mines.
  • Timber forests and elephant forests.
• Water Security: The kingdom should not depend exclusively on rain for its water supply.
• Infrastructure and Economy: There must be well-maintained roads and waterways. The economy should be productive, featuring a wide variety of commodities.

The Transition from First to Second Urbanisation

The Disintegration of the Harappan Order

In the early 2nd millennium BCE (a few centuries after $2000\,BCE$), the Indus/Harappan/Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation, known as India’s ‘First Urbanisation’, disintegrated. This collapse led to:

• Urban Decay: Cities were abandoned, or residents reverted to rural/village lifestyles.
• Loss of Infrastructure: Elaborate private and public structures, crowded streets, and busy markets disappeared.
• Decline of Specialisation: Communities of metalsmiths, potters, builders, weavers, and craftspeople vanished.
• Cultural Regression: The writing system, sanitation systems, administrative presence, and larger state structures with ruling classes were lost.

The Urban Gap

For an entire millennium (roughly from $2000\,BCE$ to $1000\,BCE$), urban life was largely absent from India, with only occasional towns appearing in north India.

The Emergence of Second Urbanisation

In the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of urbanisation began in the Ganga plains, the Indus (Sindhu) basin, and neighbouring regions. This phase is termed the ‘Second Urbanisation’ and has continued to the present day. Evidence for this phase comes from:

1. Archaeological Excavations: Confirming the physical existence of ancient urban centres.
2. Ancient Literature: Descriptions found in late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts.

Janapadas and Mahājanapadas

Definitions and Origins

Toward the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, regional cultures in north India reorganised into clans or groups sharing common language and customs.

• Janapada: A Sanskrit term meaning ‘where the people ($jana$) have set foot ($pada$)’, referring to areas where they settled. These were led by a $rājā$ (ruler).
• Mahājanapadas: By the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, trade networks expanded, leading some early states to merge into bigger units called mahājanapadas.

The Sixteen Mahājanapadas

Ancient texts frequently list 16 major mahājanapadas, ranging from Gandhāra (Northwest) to Anga (East) and Aśhmaka (Central India, near the Godavari River). Key states included:

• Magadha: Capital was Rājagṛiha (Modern Rajgir in Bihar).
• Kosala: Capital was Śhrāvastī.
• Vatsa: Capital was Kauśhāmbī.
• Avanti: Capital was Ujjayinī.
• Vṛijji (Vajji): Capital was Vaiśhālī.
• Malla: Capital was Kushīnāra.
• Chedi: Capital was Tripuri.
• Kuru: Capital was Indraprastha.
• Pañchāla: Capital was Ahichchhatra.
• Matsya: Capital was Virāṭa.
• Śhūrasena: Capital was Mathurā.
• Aśhmaka: Location near Godavari River.
• Gandhāra: Capital was Takṣhaśhilā.
• Kamboja: Capital was Pushkalavati.
• Anga: Capital was Champā.

Geographic Advantages of the Ganga Plains

The concentration of mahājanapadas in the Ganga plains was due to:

• Growth of agriculture in fertile soil.
• Availability of iron ore in nearby mountains and hills.
• Formation of new trade networks.

Systems of Governance and Early Democratic Traditions

Consultative Governance

Each janapada featured an assembly or council called a $sabhā$ or $samiti$ (terms first appearing in the Vedas).

• Membership: Likely composed of clan elders.
• Role: The $rājā$ was expected to take advice from these assemblies, ministers, and administrators rather than ruling arbitrarily.
• Accountability: Some texts suggest an incompetent ruler could be removed by the assembly.

Monarchies vs. Early Republics

1. Monarchies: The $rājā$ held ultimate authority, supported by ministers and an assembly of elders. The position was generally hereditary (son succeeding father). Powerful examples included Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti.
2. Gaṇas or Sanghas (Early Republics): Practiced in Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla.
   • The $sabhā$ or $samiti$ held more power.
   • Decisions were made through discussion and voting.
   • The $rājā$ himself was often selected by the assembly.

Technological and Economic Innovations

Iron Metallurgy

While copper and bronze were mastered by Harappans, the Second Urbanisation was driven by iron.

• Timeline: Iron techniques were perfected from the early 2nd millennium BCE but became part of daily life by the late 2nd millennium BCE.
• Impact on Agriculture: Widespread iron tools allowed for larger-scale farming.
• Impact on Warfare: Iron weapons (swords, spears, arrows, shields) were lighter and sharper than bronze.

Coinage and Trade

The growth of trade necessitated the first use of coins in India.

• Punch-marked Coins: The first coins were made of silver, a soft metal into which symbols were 'punched'.
• Materials: Later coins were produced from copper, gold, and other metals.
• Usage: Individual mahājanapadas issued their own, but coins from other regions were widely exchanged through trade.

The Varṇa–Jāti System

As society became more complex, it organised into groups based on occupation and class.

The Jāti System

• Definition: A community defined by a specific professional occupation.
• Transmission: Skills (metallurgy, commerce, agriculture) were transmitted from generation to generation.
• Structure: Jātis often subdivided into sub-jātis with distinct customs regarding rituals, food, and marriage.

The Varṇa System

A four-fold concept emerging from Vedic texts:

1. Brahmins: Engaged in preserving knowledge and performing rituals.
2. Kshatriyas: Expected to defend society and engage in warfare.
3. Vaishyas: Aimed to increase wealth through trade, business, and agriculture.
4. Shudras: Artisans, workers, and servants.

Flexibility and Rigidity

• Historical Context: In early periods, the system was flexible; individuals could change occupations due to drought or necessity.
• Caste: The English word 'caste' (from Portuguese casta) is often used to describe this system.
• Evolution: Over time, the system became more rigid, leading to discrimination against lower jātis and those excluded from the system. Scholars note rigidity increased significantly during British rule.

Infrastructure and Regional Expansion

Major Communication Routes

1. Uttarapatha: Connected northwest regions to the Ganga plains and eastern India.
2. Dakṣhiṇapatha: Started near Kauśhāmbī (Prayagraj), crossed the Vindhya Range, and proceeded all the way south.

Regional Developments

• Eastern India: Cities like Śhiśhupalgarh (near modern Bhubaneswar) emerged. It was the capital of Kalinga, featuring a square ground plan, imposing fortifications (with moats), and broad streets.
• Southern India: Cities began emerging around $400\,BCE$. Three kingdoms rose: the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pānḍyas. They traded local resources (spices, gold, gemstones) with the rest of India and overseas empires.

Timeline Summary ($1900\,BCE$ – $300\,BCE$)

• $1900\,BCE$: Decline of Harappan Civilisation.
• Late 2nd Millennium BCE: Rise of Janapadas.
• $800\,BCE$ – $400\,BCE$: Peak of Mahājanapadas and growth of Second Urbanisation.
• $300\,BCE$: Mahājanapadas cease to exist; rise of interconnected subcontinent.

Questions & Discussion

1. Discussion on Arthaśhāstra: Consider Kauṭilya's recommendations for a kingdom (fortification, trade, resources). Compare these to modern governance. Are they very different today?
2. Ruler Selection: According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society? (Note: They were expected to be chosen or approved by assemblies, and in republics, they were voted upon).
3. Historical Sources: If you were a historian, what sources would you use to study mahājanapadas?
   • Literary: Late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts provide names and social structures.
   • Archaeological: Excavations provide evidence of fortifications, iron tools, and coins.
4. Importance of Metallurgy: Why was iron metallurgy essential for urbanism in the 1st millennium BCE? (Facilitated large-scale agriculture and provided superior military equipment).