HD

1. 
   What did Piaget mean by the term "egocentrism"? Give one example and describe three limitations he said mark the preoperational stage.

Piaget called egocentrism literally self-centeredness. Children’s tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective. This is not selfishness, a kid may give his mom a present of a dinosaur but he wrapped it and gave it to her expecting her to love it. Centration: tendency to focus on one aspect of a citation to the exclusion of all others (daddy can't be a brother because he is a father). Focus on appearance. Static reasoning: they believe that the world is stable, unchanging, always in the state in which they currently encounter it.

2. Francesca is frustrated when trying to learn to tie her shoelaces. According toVygotsky, should her parents get involved, or should they let her try to gain proficiency in this task independently? If they decide to get involved, what should her parents do?

Vygotsky believed children need guided learning Guided participation, where when they are faced with a problem they offer assistance (Without taking over) add crucial information  As well as encouraging motivation.

3. What are the characteristics of high-quality early education?

High-cost does not equate to high-quality early education. Child-teacher interaction correlates with learning. Effective teachers talk, laugh, guide, and play with happy talkative children. 

4. Intensive early childhood programs have been implemented in the United States. At least four examples of how children benefit from early intervention include both short-term and long-term advantages.

In adolescence children who had undergone intensive preschool education had better vocabulary, did better in math and reading, had higher aspirations and possessed a greater sense of achievement. As young adults they were more likely to attend college and less likely to go to jail. And as middle aged adults they were more often employed, paying taxes, healthy, and not in need of government subsidies. 

5. Briefly describe what happens and at what age during Erikson's initiative versus guilt.What is the virtue?

A period when young children (ages 2–6) undertake new skills and activities (saying something new, beginning a rpojejct, and expressing an emotion) and feel guilty or proud with what happens (if they fail or do good). This stage emphasizes the importance of balancing the child's growing sense of purpose and ambition with their capacity to handle failure and criticism constructively

6. Describe the three parenting styles identified by Diana Baumrind.

Authoritarian: Characterized by high behavrioal standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication from child to parent.  Permissive: An approach that is characterized by high nurturance and communication  but little discipline, guidance, or control. Authoritative: An approach in which the parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.

7. Describe neglectful/uninvolved parenting and compare it to the permissive parenting style.

Neglectful or uninvolved parenting is characterized by a lack of responsiveness and involvement, where parents are emotionally detached and provide minimal guidance, leaving children feeling unloved and unsupported. In contrast, permissive parenting is warm and indulgent but lacks discipline and structure, often allowing children excessive freedom and avoiding confrontation. While permissive parents are highly involved but lenient, neglectful parents are disengaged and unresponsive.

8. Discuss the long-term outcomes that are associated with the four parenting styles.

Authoritarian parents raise kids who become quiet and obedient. They may feel guilty or depressed and blame themselves when things go wrong>as adults they are quick to blame and punish. Permissive parents raide kids who lack self-control and inadequate emotional regulation makes them immature and impedes friendships, often dependent on their parents in adulthood. Authoritative raide kids who are successful, articulate, happy w themselves, and generous, often liked by teachers. Neglectful/uninvolved parents raise kids who are immature, sad, lonely, and at risk of injury and abuse, not only as a kid but lifelong. 

9. Seven-year-old Ling has been diagnosed with ADHD (what does that stand for?). Describe some of her behaviors and advise her parents/teachers on things they can do to help.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder - people with adhd are inattentative, active, and impulsive. Go on meds or The kid can get cognitive behavioral therapy along with extra time on hard assignemnts. Maybe fidget toys to keep hands busy. Most professionals believe that contextual interventions (instructing caregivers and schools on child management, changing the diet, increasing outdoor play, eliminating screens) should be tried before drugs.

10. Identify the signs of autism spectrum disorder. How early might a parent or caregiver notice those signs?

The defining symptom is impaired social interaction, making kids w autism less adept at conversation, social play, and understanding emotions. ASD signs may appear in early infancy (no social smile, for example, or less gasing at faces and eyes) as well as communication attempts and play patterns are used to diagnose ASD in infants as young as 8 months.

With limited eye contact, some notice a detachment from their caregivers and do not let their parents hold or hug them. In chapter 11 they talk about how they tend to be nonverbal as well, they may not have social smiles. Children with autism tend to have a slower time to develop theory of mind.

11. Discuss the "hygiene hypothesis" as it relates to illness. State two facts that support the hypothesis

In Chapter 11 they also mention the hygiene hypothesis and say it is “the immune system needs to tangle with microbes when we are young…. despite what our mothers told us, cleanliness sometimes leads to sickness” basically saying that when they are not exposed to other infections and germs which makes them more likely to catch sickness two data pieces that relate to this are 1. first-born children develop asthma more than later-born ones

2. children born by cesarean delivery (very sterile) have a greater incidence of asthma.

12. According to Piaget, explain the concrete operational stage of cognitive development. At what age does it emerge in children, and how are children best taught given this perspective?

This is the third stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development from ages 7 to 11 years old. This stage was for logic but still concrete thinking not very abstract ideas. Using concrete objects like cups or blocks, use word problems, and ask questions grounded in the present.

13. Describe Erikson's fourth psychosocial crisis and explain how it can be resolved. At what age does this stage occur?

In chapter 13 they give us information on the fourth psychosocial crisis being industry vs inferiority between ages 6 to 11 years old. “Overall, children judge themselves as either industrious or inferior — deciding whether they are competent or incompetent, productive or useless, winners or losers.” this can be resolved by positive reinforcements, giving opportunities for success like matching their abilities, constructive criticism (you tried the problem but seemed difficult ur getting better. keep it up!)

14. Define resilience and identify two factors in a child's life that can support it.

In Chapter 13 resilience is defined as a dynamic process and not a trait, someone can be resilient at times but not always. Two factors are cumulative stress and family as a buffer?

15. Compared to a century ago, adolescent sexual activity is now more hazardous because four factors have changed. Identify two of the four factors that have changed.

The four factors are sex education, fear of HIV/AIDS,  awareness of the hazards of pregnancy, and more female education. 

16. Describe anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating disorder. Name two DSM criteria that must be present for a diagnosis of each.

Anorexia: An eating disorder characterized by self-starvation. Affected individuals voluntarily undereat and oen overexercise, depriving their vital organs of nutrition. Anorexia can be fatal. 

Two DSM criteria: restriction of energy intake, extreme fear of weight gain

Bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by binge eating and subsequent purging, usually by induced vomiting and/or use of laxatives.

Two DSM criteria: Recurrent episodes of binge eating, Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors (vomiting, fasting)

Binge eating: Frequent episodes of uncontrollable overeating to the point that the stomach hurts. Usually, the person feels shame and guilt but is unable to stop.

Two DSM criteria: distress (feeling guilty, ashamed), excessive amount of eating

17. Define adolescent egocentrism, then name and define two universal examples.

When adolescents focus on themselves and on what others think of them

Two examples: details of body changes, think not realistically abt future

18. State two risks associated with the "invincibility fable" and two associated with the "imaginary audience."

Invinciblility fable: engaging in dangerous activities, they stop believing in self control because they are “invincible”

Imaginary audience: self consciousness, peer pressure 

19. James Marcia identified three specific ways young people cope with the identity crisis before they reach identity achievement. Name and describe all three.

 (1) role confusion: When adolescents have no clear identity but fluctuate from one persona to another

 (2) foreclosure: Erikson’s term for premature identity formation, when adolescents adopt their parents’ or society’s roles and values without questioning or analysis

 (3) moratorium: A socially acceptable way to postpone achieving identity. Going to college and joining the military are examples.

20. .Define suicidal ideation and parasuicide. How do the rates of suicidal ideation, parasuicide, and completed suicide compare for adolescent males and females in the United States?

Suicidal ideation: Serious thinking about suicide, oen including extreme emotions and thoughts.

Parasuicide: Any potentially deadly self-harm that does not result in death. 

Thoughts about killing oneself (called suicidal ideation) : most common at about age 15. More than one-third (41 percent) of U.S. high school girls felt so hopeless that they stopped doing some usual activities for two weeks or more in the previous year (an indication of depression), and nearly one-fourth (22 percent) thought seriously about suicide. For boys the rates were 21 and 12 percent.

parasuicide: Among U.S. high school students in 2017, 9 percent of the girls and 5 percent of the boys attempted suicide in the previous year

the rate of completed suicide for White teenagers, aged 15 to 19 (in school or not), was about 5 per 100,000, or 0.005 percent. The rate for non-White teenagers is about half that. Suicide rates are seven times higher for LGBTQ youth than others