Untitled Notes

There was significant concern among Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican revolutionaries regarding U.S. intentions during the War of 1898, specifically regarding independence.
Teller Amendment: The amendment was expected to ensure that the United States would not annex Cuba and instead recognize its independence post-war.
General Calixto García (Cuban military leader) expressed hope that the Teller Amendment implied U.S. acknowledgment of Cuba's right to independence.

Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican revolutionaries played essential roles in defeating Spain during the War of 1898:
- Cuban Revolutionaries: Already engaged in fighting for independence for several years prior to U.S. involvement.
- Filipino Revolutionaries: Contributed to weakening the Spanish military through sustained conflict.
- Puerto Ricans: Participated after previous unsuccessful revolts against Spanish control.
These revolutionaries' efforts significantly aided U.S. victory in the war by undermining Spanish military capacity.
Examples of collaboration in the war include:
- Filipino forces were instrumental in the defeat of Spanish troops in Manila.
- The Cuban military fought alongside U.S. forces in critical battles such as the Battle of San Juan Hill, leading to the liberation of Santiago.

U.S. soldiers exhibited mistreatment towards Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican soldiers:
- Racism was rampant among U.S. troops, with derogatory comments made about soldiers of color.
- Puerto Rican civilians faced property destruction at the hands of U.S. soldiers, and there was a demand for Cuban and Filipino troops to submit to U.S. authority and perform menial tasks.

After the war, disillusionment grew among Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican forces as it became clear that the McKinley administration had no intention of granting independence:
- President McKinley did not recognize the revolutionary forces as allies.
- U.S. troops were sent to maintain control over Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the war's end.
- As General Máximo Gómez stated, there was increasing concern that the U.S. was expected to take Spain's place as a colonial ruler.

The Treaty of Paris ended the War of 1898, negotiated between the U.S. and Spain, excluding Cuban, Puerto Rican, Guam, and Philippine representatives:
- Spain relinquished control of Puerto Rico and Guam.
- The U.S. paid Spain $20 million for the Philippines.
- Cuba was acknowledged as independent but under U.S. influence due to the Teller Amendment.
After the war, American troops prevented local soldiers (Cubans and Filipinos) from entering their own liberated cities as a demonstration of U.S. authority.

Post-war, the U.S. established a military government in Cuba from 1898 to 1902, ignoring Cuban sentiments:
- Admiral William T. Sampson emphasized U.S. control over Cuba regardless of local acceptance.
- Many Cubans felt betrayed, perceiving the U.S. military governance as a rejection of their independence aspirations.

The exclusion of colonial representatives during the Treaty of Paris negotiations mirrored earlier patterns of U.S. settler colonialism in North America.
The U.S. annexation of Hawai'i occurred concurrently during the war and faced significant protest from Native Hawaiians who opposed being subjected to U.S. control without their consent:
- The Hawaiian elite endorsed annexation, contrasting with Native Hawaiian opposition, which was articulated in protest resolutions.

President McKinley's justification for the annexation of Hawai'i was rooted in the idea of Manifest Destiny:
- He asserted the necessity of Hawai'i for national defense alongside the need for territorial expansion for strategic reasons.

Following the War of 1898, imperialists celebrated the newfound territories, while many Americans were surprised by the U.S. actions post-war:
- There was a sense of betrayal among those who believed the war was fought for liberation rather than territorial acquisition.
- An emerging discourse highlighted divided opinions on the morality and efficacy of maintaining an overseas colonial empire.

In response to U.S. colonial rule, diverse groups within the annexed territories, including Filipinos and Native Hawaiians, enacted resistance movements.
In Hawaii, the Kanaka Maoli led a quest for sovereignty through nonviolent protests against the annexation, forming a crucial part of the resistance narrative against U.S. imperialism.