U.S. Global Expansion, 1890-1915: The War of 1898 and Its Aftermath

Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican Nationalism

• There was significant concern among Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican revolutionaries regarding U.S. intentions during the War of 1898, specifically regarding independence.
• Teller Amendment: The amendment was expected to ensure that the United States would not annex Cuba and instead recognize its independence post-war.
• General Calixto García (Cuban military leader) expressed hope that the Teller Amendment implied U.S. acknowledgment of Cuba's right to independence.

Role of Revolutionaries in the War of 1898

• Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican revolutionaries played essential roles in defeating Spain during the War of 1898:
  • Cuban Revolutionaries: Already engaged in fighting for independence for several years prior to U.S. involvement.
  • Filipino Revolutionaries: Contributed to weakening the Spanish military through sustained conflict.
  • Puerto Ricans: Participated after previous unsuccessful revolts against Spanish control.
• These revolutionaries' efforts significantly aided U.S. victory in the war by undermining Spanish military capacity.
• Examples of collaboration in the war include:
  • Filipino forces were instrumental in the defeat of Spanish troops in Manila.
  • The Cuban military fought alongside U.S. forces in critical battles such as the Battle of San Juan Hill, leading to the liberation of Santiago.

Treatment of Allied Forces

• U.S. soldiers exhibited mistreatment towards Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican soldiers:
  • Racism was rampant among U.S. troops, with derogatory comments made about soldiers of color.
  • Puerto Rican civilians faced property destruction at the hands of U.S. soldiers, and there was a demand for Cuban and Filipino troops to submit to U.S. authority and perform menial tasks.

U.S. Post-War Actions and Policies

• After the war, disillusionment grew among Cuban, Filipino, and Puerto Rican forces as it became clear that the McKinley administration had no intention of granting independence:
  • President McKinley did not recognize the revolutionary forces as allies.
  • U.S. troops were sent to maintain control over Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines after the war's end.
  • As General Máximo Gómez stated, there was increasing concern that the U.S. was expected to take Spain's place as a colonial ruler.

Treaty of Paris (1898)

• The Treaty of Paris ended the War of 1898, negotiated between the U.S. and Spain, excluding Cuban, Puerto Rican, Guam, and Philippine representatives:
  • Spain relinquished control of Puerto Rico and Guam.
  • The U.S. paid Spain $20 million for the Philippines.
  • Cuba was acknowledged as independent but under U.S. influence due to the Teller Amendment.
• After the war, American troops prevented local soldiers (Cubans and Filipinos) from entering their own liberated cities as a demonstration of U.S. authority.

Impacts on Cuban Independence

• Post-war, the U.S. established a military government in Cuba from 1898 to 1902, ignoring Cuban sentiments:
  • Admiral William T. Sampson emphasized U.S. control over Cuba regardless of local acceptance.
  • Many Cubans felt betrayed, perceiving the U.S. military governance as a rejection of their independence aspirations.

Historical Context of U.S. Expansion

• The exclusion of colonial representatives during the Treaty of Paris negotiations mirrored earlier patterns of U.S. settler colonialism in North America.
• The U.S. annexation of Hawai'i occurred concurrently during the war and faced significant protest from Native Hawaiians who opposed being subjected to U.S. control without their consent:
  • The Hawaiian elite endorsed annexation, contrasting with Native Hawaiian opposition, which was articulated in protest resolutions.

Rationale for Territorial Expansion

• President McKinley's justification for the annexation of Hawai'i was rooted in the idea of Manifest Destiny:
  • He asserted the necessity of Hawai'i for national defense alongside the need for territorial expansion for strategic reasons.

Reactions in the United States

• Following the War of 1898, imperialists celebrated the newfound territories, while many Americans were surprised by the U.S. actions post-war:
  • There was a sense of betrayal among those who believed the war was fought for liberation rather than territorial acquisition.
  • An emerging discourse highlighted divided opinions on the morality and efficacy of maintaining an overseas colonial empire.

Resistance to U.S. Imperialism

• In response to U.S. colonial rule, diverse groups within the annexed territories, including Filipinos and Native Hawaiians, enacted resistance movements.
• In Hawaii, the Kanaka Maoli led a quest for sovereignty through nonviolent protests against the annexation, forming a crucial part of the resistance narrative against U.S. imperialism.