AQA Psychology A-level - Topic 3: Attachment

AQA Psychology A-level: Attachment Study Notes

Part 1: Caregiver-Infant Interactions in Humans: Reciprocity and Interactional Synchrony

  • Attachment: A strong reciprocal emotional bond between an infant and a primary caregiver, where attachment formation requires mutual contributions from both parties.

    • Reciprocal: The interaction is two-way; both the infant and the caregiver engage and respond to each other (e.g., when a parent smiles, the infant smiles back).

    • Significance of Reciprocity: Demonstrated by Brazleton et al. (1975), who discovered that infants as young as 2 weeks can attempt to copy their caregiver's responses, showing that caregivers respond to these signals about two-thirds of the time (Feldman).

    • Importance includes enhancing communicative abilities and responsiveness in caregiving, allowing caregivers to better address infant needs.

  • Interactional Synchrony: Refers to the synchronization of movements and behaviors between caregiver and infant.

    • Condon and Sander (1974): Observed that infants can synchronize movements with an adult’s vocal sounds.

    • Brazleton et al.: Found that infants can mimic distinct facial expressions or gestures, adapting to the caregiver's rhythm, pitch, and volume.

    • Outcome: Enhances communication between parent and child, affecting future relationships as the child matures.

  • Methodological Considerations:

    • Many studies employed controlled observations, such as filming interactions from various angles, ensuring detail and accuracy for conclusive results.

    • Inter-rater Reliability: Achieved as independent observers reviewed recorded interactions, confirming findings.

    • Caveat: Actions of very young infants may not have meaningful intent. Bremner suggested that behavioral responses do not equate to behavioral understanding; an interaction may appear reciprocal without genuine comprehension from the infant.

Part 2: Stages of Attachment Identified by Schaffer

  • Aim: To identify the stages of attachment development in infants.

  • Study Details (Schaffer and Emerson, 1964):

    • Participants: 60 infants from Glasgow, all residing in the same estate.

    • Procedure:

    • Analyzed interactions between infants and caregivers.

    • Conducted interviews with caregivers.

    • Mothers kept diaries tracking infants' behaviors using measures of Separation Anxiety, Stranger Anxiety, and Social Referencing.

    • Conducted as a longitudinal study over 18 months, with monthly visits and a final assessment at study completion.

  • Findings/Conclusions:

    • Infants with caregivers showing 'sensitive responsiveness' were more likely to develop attachments.

    • Sensitive Responsiveness vs. Time Spent: Sensitivity to infant cues is more crucial than merely spending time with them.

    • Infants interacting with responsive caregivers reported stronger attachment than those with less interactive caregivers.

    • Stages of attachment identified:

    • Asocial Stage (0-6 weeks): Infants respond similarly to objects and people; they may show preference for faces.

    • Indiscriminate Attachments (6 weeks – 6 months): Develop responses to human company; comforted by any caregiver.

    • Specific Attachment (7 months +): Preference for one caregiver develops, marked by stranger and separation anxiety.

    • Multiple Attachments (10/11 months +): Formation of multiple attachments with various figures, showing distress upon separation from several caregivers.

    • Observational Note: 31% of infants had five or more attachments at the end.

Part 3: Evaluation of Schaffer’s Study

  • Population Validity:

    • Limitation due to the sample being primarily from Glasgow and mostly working-class families, limiting generalizability.

  • Internal Validity:

    • Relied on self-reported diaries, which might lack accuracy due to social desirability bias and demand characteristics; parents may skew reports based on perceived expectations.

    • Possible inaccuracies in detail due to busy schedules of caregivers.

  • Asocial Stage Limitations:

    • Young infants lack motor coordination; understanding of interactions remains uncertain (Bremner's distinction between behavioral response and understanding).

Part 4: The Role of the Father

  • Findings from Schaffer and Emerson:

    • 75% of infants developed a secondary attachment to their fathers by 18 months, with 29% within a month of forming the primary attachment.

    • Indicates that while fathers are significant, they are often not the primary attachment figure.

  • Tiffany Field’s Research:

    • Observed that regardless of gender, primary caregivers (mothers/fathers) who provide more attentive care develop stronger attachment bonds.

  • Debate on the Father’s Role:

    • MacCallum and Golombok’s study on children from diverse family structures shows no significant difference in attachment compared to children from heterosexual families, suggesting the role of fathers is still debated.

    • Influences of social norms and biological predispositions regarding caregiver roles discussed.

  • Social Sensitivity:

    • Research findings may create societal pressure on single parents regarding attachment quality and returning to work.

Part 5: Animal Studies of Attachment: Lorenz and Harlow

  • Lorenz’s Imprinting:

    • Demonstrated that animals attach to the first moving object they encounter after birth (e.g., baby geese following Lorenz).

    • Critical period for imprinting considered essential within the first 30 months; failure to attach during this period leads to irreversible consequences.

  • Sexual Imprinting:

    • Example of attachment influencing sexual behavior; e.g., a peacock raised among turtles only desired turtles as mates later in life.

  • Generalizability Issues:

    • Mammalian attachment systems differ from that in birds, suggesting findings cannot extend beyond avian studies.

  • Harlow’s Contact Comfort:

    • Research on rhesus monkeys showed a preference for a cloth-covered mother over a wire one that dispensed milk, indicating comfort preference over nourishment.

    • Resulted in serious social and attachment issues in monkeys deprived of contact comfort during development.

  • Practical Applications of Harlow’s Research:

    • Findings influence animal care guidelines in zoos and shelters to include attachment-focused designs, emphasizing the significance of attachment and comfort.

  • Ethical Considerations:

    • Significant ethical breaches due to long-term psychological harm done to monkeys in the experiment; raises the question on the utility of research versus associated ethical costs.

Part 6: Explanations of Attachment: Learning Theory and Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory

  • Learning Theory (Behaviorist Perspective):

    • Children are viewed as blank slates learning through interactions:

    • Classical Conditioning: Association formed between neutral stimulus (mother) and pleasure (from feeding), leading to affection towards the caregiver.

      • Example: Baby feels comfort from feeding experiences and gradually associates the mother with that comfort.

    • Operant Conditioning: Infants' behaviors (like crying) are reinforced through responsiveness from caregivers, which leads to attachment based on rewards (attention, food).

    • Key Terms:

    • Stimulus: An event that provokes a response.

    • Response: The resultant action due to a stimulus.

    • Innate: Natural behavioral traits from birth.

  • Contradictory Evidence:

    • Harlow's studies suggest contact comfort trumps food as the basis for attachment formation. Brazleton et al. show that interactional synchrony and reciprocity are critical for attachment, contradicting learning theories.

Part 7: Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment

  • Overview:

    • Bowlby proposed that attachments are innate, formed due to evolutionary advantages (ASCMI model).

    • A - Adaptive: Enhances survival by keeping the child safe and nourished.

    • S - Social Releasers: Features like facial expressions trigger care from adults and activate attachment systems.

    • C - Critical Period: Importance of forming attachments within the first 30 months; delays may lead to irreversible effects on social, emotional, and intellectual development.

    • M - Monotropy: One primary attachment figure (commonly the mother). Maternal deprivation leads to long-term emotional and cognitive issues.

    • I - Internal Working Model: Cognitive framework formed from the first attachment, influencing future relationship patterns (Bailey et al. support this claim).

    • Implications of Monotropy: Stigmatization and societal pressure on mothers regarding attachment formation and parenting.

    • Cultural Differences: Evidence showing variations in attachment styles in collectivist societies, questioning the universality of Bowlby’s monotropic theory.

Part 8: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

  • Design: Controlled observation with 7 stages assessing child-caregiver attachment styles through separation and reunion behaviors.

    • Stages include initial caregiver presence, introduction of a stranger, caregiver departure, and reunion with the caregiver.

  • Attachment Types Identified:

    • Secure: 65% of children; showed distress when separated but comforted upon return.

    • Insecure Resistant: 3% of children; highly distressed on separation, ambivalent during reunion.

    • Insecure Avoidant: 20% of children; no distress during separation or engagement with a stranger.

Part 9: Evaluation of the Strange Situation

  • Validity Concerns:

    • Attachment measured with one caregiver type (mothers only); may not reflect overall attachment dynamics as other caregivers may be closer.

    • Ethical concerns due to distress demonstrated by 20% of children during the study; raises questions about the appropriateness of the procedure.

    • Issues of population and ecological validity; primarily based on Western children, leading to cultural bias.

    • Laboratory setting limits ecological validity; high control fosters replicability yet lacks real-world reflection.

Part 10: Cultural Variations in Attachment - Van Izjendoorn

  • Meta-Analysis: Van Izjendoorn and Kronenberg (1988) reviewed patterns of attachment across 32 studies spanning 8 countries.

    • Findings show cultural variations, as illustrated by Simonella et al. in Italy (50% secure attachments) correlating with modern caregiving practices (more working mothers, less consistent primary caregivers).

    • Jin et al. (2012) indicated variance in attachment classifications among different cultures.

  • Ecological Validity Issues: Cultural variations may not be fully captured as not all cultures are represented within single countries.

  • Critiques of the Strange Situation’s cultural relevance, suggesting it is biased towards Western practices, which could limit application to collectivist cultures.

Part 11: Bowlby’s Theory of Maternal Deprivation

  • Principle: Attachment is crucial for psychological and emotional health; maternal deprivation can lead to adverse consequences.

    • Consequences of Maternal Deprivation Include:

    • Difficulty forming future attachments.

    • Affectionless psychopathy.

    • Behavioral issues.

    • Cognitive developmental delays.

  • Bowlby’s 44 Juvenile Thieves Study: Findings suggested strong links between maternal deprivation and criminality; 12 out of 14 affectionless psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation during the critical period.

  • Counter Research: Lewis et al.'s findings did not support a direct correlation between maternal deprivation and relational difficulties, indicating Bowlby may have misjudged causal links.

  • Critical Period Effects Questioned: Example of twins from Czechoslovakia who recovered well post-severe deprivation suggests effects may not always be permanent.

Part 12: Effects of Institutionalisation

  • General Notes on Institutional Care: Children likely to experience emotional privation and related distress.

    • Study by Hodges and Tizard (1989): Followed 65 British children from infancy to adolescence, assessing attachment quality post-institution.

    • Findings showed significant attachment issues in ex-institutional children, highlighting the detrimental effects on peer relationships and emotional connections.

  • Romanian Orphan Studies: Rutter et al. (2007) assessed 165 orphans, focusing on psychological and emotional development relative to their adoption age.

    • Outcomes indicated that adoption before 6 months led to significantly better outcomes in emotional and cognitive recovery than late adoption.

    • Suggested signs of disinhibited attachment correlated with delayed adoption, reinforcing the importance of early attachment formation for later developmental success.

  • Attachment Disorders: Recognized psychiatric condition involving lack of preferred attachment figures and ability to interact, often resulting from severe neglect or frequent caregiver changes.

    • Two types observed: Reactive (withdrawn) and Disinhibited (attention-seeking).

  • Evaluation of Rutter’s Study:

    • Advantages include isolating variables related to institutionalization, increasing reliability of conclusions drawn about the long-term effects of attachment disruptions.

    • Critiques highlight possible limitations in ecological validity due to specific conditions of Romanian orphanages.

Part 13: Influence of Early Attachment on Childhood and Adult Relationships

  • Bowlby’s Continuity Hypothesis: Suggests that early attachment experiences influence adult relationships, forming internal working models impacting behavior in friendships, romantic relations, and parenting.

  • Research Support: Bailey (2007) reaffirmed continuity; mothers reported similar attachment classifications for both their children and their own childhood experiences.

  • Family Patterns and Parenting Styles: Evidence suggests a correlation between one’s attachment style and how parenting views manifest in another generation.

  • Relation to Adult Relationships: Insecurely attached children may struggle with trust and commitment in romantic relationships, potentially leading to challenges in forming healthy partnerships.

  • Critique of Deterministic Approach: The deterministic view proposed by Bowlby suggests inevitable negative outcomes for insecurely attached individuals, which does not account for the variability and resilience observed in adult relationships.

  • Research Limitations: Despite notable correlations, many insecurely attached individuals can and do establish fulfilling relationships, indicating the role of other life experiences and genetic factors (Kagan’s temperament hypothesis).