The French Revolution to Napoleonic Era Notes
The French Revolution [1789-1799]
Causes of the French Revolution
A multitude of factors contributed to the French Revolution, encompassing political, social, and economic dimensions.
Political Causes
Feudal System of Government:
Louis XVI's government favored the nobility over merit, reserving positions for them in government, army, navy, and church.
This system excluded the bourgeoisie from dignified offices despite their financial contributions, fueling their resentment.
The nobility focused on maintaining their privileges.
Autocratic Rule / Royal Absolutism / Tyrannical Rule:
Louis XVI held absolute power, ruling by divine right without a parliament.
The lettres de catchet allowed arbitrary imprisonment without trial, with thousands of arrests recorded.
Criticism of the government was suppressed through strict censorship, limiting freedom of speech and expression.
The American War of Independence / The American Revolution:
French involvement in the American Revolutionary War (1776-1783) exposed French soldiers to democratic ideals, such as freedom, sovereignty, and constitutionalism.
The war highlighted the disparity between American colonists fighting against taxation and the heavily taxed French populace.
French participation exacerbated France's financial crisis due to loans and military expenses.
The Incompetence of the King:
Louis XVI's incompetence, indecision, and lack of self-confidence hindered effective governance.
He neglected state affairs for personal interests like lock-making and hunting.
His dismissal of competent ministers, such as Turgot and Necker, at crucial times prevented potential reforms.
He failed to address the grievances of the Third Estate during the Estates General meeting.
He was unduly influenced by his wife, Marie Antoinette, who opposed reforms.
The Character of the King:
Louis XVI's indecisiveness and lack of personal ability prevented him from effectively imposing his will.
His lack of wisdom led to adverse decisions, such as dismissing capable ministers.
His inconsiderate nature made him susceptible to the influence of privileged groups.
His weak character placed him at the mercy of Marie Antoinette.
Poisonous Influence From the Royal Entourage and Marie Antoinette:
Marie Antoinette exerted undue influence, leading to the perception of a "petticoat government."
She influenced Louis XVI to obstruct reform projects and was unsympathetic to the people's needs.
Other members of the royal family, like the Count of Province and the Count of Artois, also negatively influenced Louis XVI's decisions.
Grievances of the Army:
Ranks within the army were reserved for the nobility, limiting career opportunities for talented individuals.
The army's reliability as a tool of the monarch diminished.
The Influence of Philosophers:
Enlightenment philosophers spurred a revolutionary spirit, challenging royal absolutism, the dominance of the Roman Catholic Church, serfdom, and feudalism.
Philosophers exposed the abuses of the ancient regime, influencing the bourgeoisie.
Key figures included Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.
Voltaire advocated religious toleration, civil liberties, and a limited monarchy.
Montesquieu promoted a constitutional monarchy and separation of powers.
Rousseau championed the social contract and government by the people.
Encyclopedists, such as Denis Diderot and Alembert, attacked corruption and despotism.
Physiocrats advocated free trade.
Critique: Philosophers did not directly preach revolution, their teachings were primarily received by the middle class.
Economic Causes
Unfair Taxation / Inequitable Tax System:
Peasants bore the brunt of taxation, including taxes on land, salt, and produce, as well as feudal dues.
Approximately 80% of peasants' earnings went towards taxation, while the nobility and clergy were exempt.
The salt tax proved wasteful, costing million livres to collect livres worth of salt.
The Financial Crisis:
France suffered from serious financial problems. This chaos in financial administration was undoubtedly the most pressing issue in France.
Aggressive foreign policy and costly wars led to enormous loans, with interest payments consuming more than half of royal expenses by 1788.
Louis XVI's involvement in the American war of independence worsened the crisis.
Extravagance at the Court of Versailles and bad financial management also contributed.
The government struggled to repay loans, creating uncertainty among the bourgeoisie.
Social Causes
Poor Harvests / Crop Failures of 1787-1788:
Poor harvests caused food shortages and sharp rises in prices, leading to decreased textile production and widespread unemployment.
Extreme social distress forced desperate and hungry men into large towns, leading to violence and peasant riots.
Poor harvests reduced purchasing power and hampered international trade.
Religious Intolerance:
During the reign of Louis XVI, there was no freedom of religion
The Roman Catholic Church was the dominant church in France and was under state control.
Social Stratification / The Class System:
French society was divided into three estates:
First Estate: Clergy (approximately 130,000 in a nation of 28,000,000).
Enjoyed privileges, owned 10% of the nation's land tax-free, and extracted wealth through tithes and ecclesiastical fees.
Censored books, served as moral police, operated schools and hospitals, and distributed relief to the poor.
Second Estate: Nobility (approximately 300,000).
Enjoyed privileged status and controlled 30% of the land.
Held high posts in the church, army, and judiciary and were exempt from taxes.
Collected rents and dues from peasants.
Third Estate: Comprised 97% of the population, including the bourgeoisie, urban craftsmen and laborers, and peasants.
The bourgeoisie owned 20% of the land and sought privileges and political power.
Urban workers faced long hours, low wages, and high unemployment.
Peasants (80% of the population) owned 40% of the land but suffered from taxation and feudal obligations.
Immediate Cause
The Summoning of the Estates General meeting [5 May 1789]:
Louis XVI summoned the Estates General meeting after over 120 years due to mounting problems, particularly the financial crisis and food scarcity.
The cahiers (lists of grievances) of the Third Estate called for the abolition of feudal dues, taxation privileges, and special feudal laws, the establishment of equality under the law, and religious freedom.
The Estates General meeting was unable to solve the problems because of its composition and the king's support for traditional voting procedures.
Ways to avoid the revolution:
The king could have implemented a clear policy of constitutional and fiscal reforms.
Taxes could have been distributed equitably.
The king could have worked with competent ministers.
The ancient system of government could have been reformed.
Expenditure at the royal court could have been reduced.
The people of France could have been cushioned from the effects of poor harvests.
COURSE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [1789-1799]
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY [17 June 1789-1791]
The National Assembly was the first revolutionary government.
Reforms of the National Assembly
a] Abolition of feudalism and special privileges of the nobility
b] Approval of a civil constitution of the clergy [August 1789]
c] Dissolution of ecclesiastical orders.
d] Appropriation of church lands as public property
e] Decentralisation of local government.
f] Creation of an elective judiciary.
g] Provision of a new constitution of France in 1791
Royal Session and Tennis Court Oath
The members of the assembly adjourned [moved] to a nearby Tennis Court building and took an oath [vowed] “never to dissolve the national assembly until the constitution of the kingdom shall be established”.
Storming of Bastille [July 1789]
The mob plundered shops, broke open jails and finally stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789. Bastille was the notorious prison which symbolized the oppression of the ancient regime.
Achievements of the National Assembly
a] Abolition of feudalism
b] The Civil Constitution of the clergy
c] The 1791 constitution
d] The 4 August Session of 1789 [the surrender of feudal privileges]
e] Declaration of the rights of men [August 1789]
f] Legal and administrative reforms
The March of Women [5 October 1789]
6000-7000 women marched to Versailles to clamor for bread and to fetch the king to Paris. 6000-7000 women marched to Versailles to clamor for bread and to fetch the king to Paris.
The king’s reaction to Revolutionary changes
*The flight to Varennes [June 1791]
Louis xvi decided to fly to the west where he could find help from Austria and émigrés. He wanted to seek help from foreign rulers [absolute monarchs] to stem the revolutionary tide in France.
Effects / Results Louis xvi’s attempted escape / flight to Varennes
-The revolutionaries lost trust in Louis xvi
-The constitutional monarch idea which people wanted was under threat.
The New Constitution [1791]
a] Legislative power
b] Executive power
c] Judicial power [Administration of Justice]
Weaknesses / Flaws of the Constitution of 1791
a] The lack of a strong executive authority was a grave defect.
b] The bourgeoisie character of the constitution was its chief defect.
c] Lack of administrative experience
d] The continued exclusion of the legislative authority from any ministerial office meant that there was no minister of quality.
THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY [October 1791-1792]
It succeeded the National Assembly.
Composition of the Legislative Assembly
It had 745 members of whom 264 were Feuillants or rightists who were in favour of a constitutional monarchy, although not necessarily of the existing constitution.
The threat of counter-revolution
These were the non-juring priests in La Vendee and the Bastille émigrés in the Netherlands and the Rhine territories.
War, Terror and Dictatorship [1792-1795]
The 1792 War
This war was between France and the allied powers of Austria, Prussia and Sardinia [an Italian state].
Causes of this war
1] The role of Marie Antoinette
2] The untenable position of the monarchy in France
3] The Declaration of Pillnitz on 27 August
4] The warlike mood in France
5] The accession of Francis I to the throne of Austria
Results / Effects of the war
1] Heavy losses on the French side
2] Increased patriotism of the French people
3] Increasing insecurity of the Royal family
The Brunswick Manifesto [28 July 1792]
A Duke is a nobleman of the highest rank. The Manifesto declared that the allies were calling on France to suppress anarchy and restore the king, Louis xvi to his rightful position of authority
Effects of the Manifesto
a] There was increased violence, especially in the capital [Paris]
b] The rise of the Revolutionary Commune in Paris
c] Loss of control by the Legislative Assembly
Danton’s Coup d’ etat
l
The New Constitution of 1793 [June 24]
*The constitution was however never implemented because of the situation within and outside France. The security situation had deteriorated so much that normal government was suspended, leading to the so called Reign of Terror.
The Reign of Terror [1793-1794]
This was the period in the revolution when the government of France as embodied in the Convention deliberately adopted a policy of terror in order to instill fear of the republic in the hearts of the royalists
Causes of the Reign of Terror
The reign of terror was caused by the deteriorating situation both internally and externally. Internal threats
The Machinery of the Terror
The Convention entrusted all executive authority to a secret committee of 9 members, known as the Committee of Public Safety. b] Religious Terror
c] Military Terror
d] Political Terror
Results of the Reign of Terror
Positive Results / Effects
-France managed to deal with external threats by 1793. The external enemy which is the first coalition was repulsed across every border and the counter-revolutionary spirit was contained.
-Due to economic terror the value of the assignats remained fairly firm.
-Internal revolts in places like La Vendee, Lyons and Marseilles, were suppressed. The last internal revolt in La Vendee was crushed on 23 December 1793.
Negative Effects / Results
-It resulted in the death of many innocent people through the law of suspects.
-The dechristianising activities of the Herbertists had compromised the unity of the nation as the Roman Catholic Church was the majority religion in France
-The intensification of the terror by Robespierre after it had accomplished its purpose was totally unjustified as it was prompted by personal selfish ambition
-The terror claimed thousands of lives and it was not just against recalcitrant [disobedient] nobility and clergy but also treacherous mass of ordinary French women and men who were unfortunate to fall victims of twists and turns of party strife [conflicts].
Role played by Robespierre [Francois Marie Isidore de Maximilien Robespierre] in the French Revolution
Consequences of the fall of Robespierre
-The Revolutionary Tribunal had been weakened.
-The Jacobin club was closed.
-The Committee of Public Safety and Committee of General Security lost their despotic powers.
-The Convention retained its grip on the Revolution and the remaining Girondins regained access to the Convention.
-The economic tyranny was relaxed and forced loans were abolished.
-Religious freedom / toleration was reinstated.
-A list of laws against the non-juring priests and against the émigrés was revoked.
-The bourgeoisie regained political control which it had temporarily lost to the rash efforts to establish a republican democracy.
-To forestall any further attempt to restore the monarchy, the bourgeoisie in the convention drew up the constitution of 1795.
THE DIRECTORY [1795-1799]
It was the fourth and last revolutionary government.
The New Constitution [1795]
a] Legislative Authority
b] Executive Authority
c] Voting qualifications
Problems faced by the Directory
The Directory inherited most of its problems from the Convention. However, it had a fair amount of success. Many of the reforms Napoleon was to later introduce were possible by the preliminary work of the Directory.
a] Financial problems
b] Prices of basic commodities especially bread was high.
c] There was persistent inflation.
*Political Problems
a] Armed bands of robbers terrorized the rural areas.
b] A revolt in La Vendee broke anew.
c] The legislative authority was divided into republicans and constitutional monarchists.
d] The Babeuf plot
e] Externally, war continued, first with the first coalition and later with the second coalition from February 1798.
Coup d’état of Fructidor [4 September 1797]
Coup D’état of Floreal [April 1798]
Achievements of the Directory
Despite many setbacks it faced, the Directory had some achievements
Comparatively, the directory stayed longer in power than all the other three revolutionary governments [1795-1799]. [National Assembly 1789-91, Legislative Assembly 1791-92, National Convention 1792-95. Directory 1795-99]
The Italian Campaign [1796]
Napoleon gave France a taste of glory and victory and victory. They signed the treaty of Campo Formio. Lombardy was made a republic.
Treaty of Campo Formio [October 1797]
The Egyptian Campaign [1798]
The Coup d’état of 18-19 Brummaire [November 1799]
Sieyes and Napoleon formed a plot to overthrow the government. A show of a democratic government was preserved.The new dictatorship was approved by an overwhelming plebiscite – a new political weapon of Napoleon.
Reasons for the success of the Coup d’état of Brummaire
There was growing dissatisfaction with the directory, which was under suspicion of repeating war for its own interest. The directory had thus become very unpopular The French people were weary with war. They wanted a leader who could transform the external war into an honourable peace.
THE NAPOLEONIC ERA / THE NAPOLEONIC FRANCE 1799-1815
Between 1799, when Napoleon became first consul and 1814, he exerted a great influence on European affairs that this period became known as the Napoleonic era. In 1804, Napoleon was made „Emperor‟ of France. With the formation of the empire, France became a monarchy again in a new guise. The republic was overthrown. The period 1801-1803 was the period of peace in Europe and domestic reforms in France. Napoleon‟s most constructive work was done during this period of peace. He stayed in France and devoted himself to the initiation of various reforms
Reasons for the rise of Napoleon I to power / Factors which led to the rise of Napoleon 1
a] Corruption of the directors led to the rise of Napoleon. b] The directory became unpopular as it was surviving on coups. c] The directory’s failure to solve social problems in France led to the rise of Napoleon. d] The directory’s failure to address economic problems in France paved way for the rise of Napoleon. e] There was growing dissatisfaction with the directory by the French people. This was because the directory was under suspicion of repeating war for its own interest.
Other Factors which led to the rise of Napoleon
f] The general desire for a strong government in France also led to the rise of Napoleon g] The situation on the war front led to Napoleon’s rise. h] The character of Napoleon was also an important factor in his rise to power
i] Napoleon was a charismatic and disciplined soldier j] Napoleon’s reputation as a military genius earned him popularity which led to his rise.
k] Naturally the French people saw Napoleon as a hero. He was always ready to rescue the directory in times of trouble.
l] The coup d’état of 18-19 Brummaire [November] 1799 finally led to the rise of Napoleon to power.
The Constitution of 1800
Terms of the constitution
The French Revolution [1789-1799] #### Causes of the French Revolution A multitude of factors contributed to the French Revolution, encompassing political, social, and economic dimensions. ##### Political Causes 1. **Feudal System of Government:** - Louis XVI's government favored the nobility over merit, reserving positions for them in government, army, navy, and church. - This system excluded the bourgeoisie from dignified offices despite their financial contributions, fueling their resentment. - The nobility focused on maintaining their privileges. 2. **Autocratic Rule / Royal Absolutism / Tyrannical Rule:** - Louis XVI held absolute power, ruling by divine right without a parliament. - The lettres de catchet allowed arbitrary imprisonment without trial, with thousands of arrests recorded. - Criticism of the government was suppressed through strict censorship, limiting freedom of speech and expression. 3. **The American War of Independence / The American Revolution:** - French involvement in the American Revolutionary War (1776-1783) exposed French soldiers to democratic ideals, such as freedom, sovereignty, and constitutionalism. - The war highlighted the disparity between American colonists fighting against taxation and the heavily taxed French populace. - French participation exacerbated France's financial crisis due to loans and military expenses. 4. **The Incompetence of the King:** - Louis XVI's incompetence, indecision, and lack of self-confidence hindered effective governance. - He neglected state affairs for personal interests like lock-making and hunting. - His dismissal of competent ministers, such as Turgot and Necker, at crucial times prevented potential reforms. - He failed to address the grievances of the Third Estate during the Estates General meeting. - He was unduly influenced by his wife, Marie Antoinette, who opposed reforms. 5. \\The Character of the King:** - Louis XVI's indecisiveness and lack of personal ability prevented him from effectively imposing his will. - His lack of wisdom led to adverse decisions, such as dismissing capable ministers. - His inconsiderate nature made him susceptible to the influence of privileged groups. - His weak character placed him at the mercy of Marie Antoinette. 6. \\Poisonous Influence From the Royal Entourage and Marie Antoinette:** - Marie Antoinette exerted undue influence, leading to the perception of a "petticoat government." - She influenced Louis XVI to obstruct reform projects and was unsympathetic to the people's needs. - Other members of the royal family, like the Count of Province and the Count of Artois, also negatively influenced Louis XVI's decisions. 7. \\Grievances of the Army:** - Ranks within the army were reserved for the nobility, limiting career opportunities for talented individuals. - The army's reliability as a tool of the monarch diminished. 8. \\The Influence of Philosophers:** - Enlightenment philosophers spurred a revolutionary spirit, challenging royal absolutism, the dominance of the Roman Catholic Church, serfdom, and feudalism. - Philosophers exposed the abuses of the ancient regime, influencing the bourgeoisie. - Key figures included Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. - Voltaire advocated religious toleration, civil liberties, and a limited monarchy. - Montesquieu promoted a constitutional monarchy and separation of powers. - Rousseau championed the social contract and government by the people. - Encyclopedists, such as Denis Diderot and Alembert, attacked corruption and despotism. - Physiocrats advocated free trade. - Critique: Philosophers did not directly preach revolution, their teachings were primarily received by the middle class. ##### Economic Causes 9. \\Unfair Taxation / Inequitable Tax System:** - Peasants bore the brunt of taxation, including taxes on land, salt, and produce, as well as feudal dues. - Approximately 80% of peasants' earnings went towards taxation, while the nobility and clergy were exempt. - The salt tax proved wasteful, costing million livres to collect livres worth of salt. 10. \\The Financial Crisis:** - France suffered from serious financial problems. This chaos in financial administration was undoubtedly the most pressing issue in France. - Aggressive foreign policy and costly wars led to enormous loans, with interest payments consuming more than half of royal expenses by 1788. - Louis XVI's involvement in the American war of independence worsened the crisis. - Extravagance at the Court of Versailles and bad financial management also contributed. - The government struggled to repay loans, creating uncertainty among the bourgeoisie. ##### Social Causes 11. \\Poor Harvests / Crop Failures of 1787-1788:** - Poor harvests caused food shortages and sharp rises in prices, leading to decreased textile production and widespread unemployment. - Extreme social distress forced desperate and hungry men into large towns, leading to violence and peasant riots. - Poor harvests reduced purchasing power and hampered international trade. 12. \\Religious Intolerance:** - During the reign of Louis XVI, there was no freedom of religion - The Roman Catholic Church was the dominant church in France and was under state control. 13. \\Social Stratification / The Class System:** - French society was divided into three estates: - First Estate: Clergy (approximately 130,000 in a nation of 28,000,000). - Enjoyed privileges, owned 10% of the nation's land tax-free, and extracted wealth through tithes and ecclesiastical fees. - Censored books, served as moral police, operated schools and hospitals, and distributed relief to the poor. - Second Estate: Nobility (approximately 300,000). - Enjoyed privileged status and controlled 30% of the land. - Held high posts in the church, army, and judiciary and were exempt from taxes. - Collected rents and dues from peasants. - Third Estate: Comprised 97% of the population, including the bourgeoisie, urban craftsmen and laborers, and peasants. - The bourgeoisie owned 20% of the land and sought privileges and political power. - Urban workers faced long hours, low wages, and high unemployment. - Peasants (80% of the population) owned 40% of the land but suffered from taxation and feudal obligations. ##### Immediate Cause 14. \\The Summoning of the Estates General meeting [5 May 1789]:\\ - Louis XVI summoned the Estates General meeting after over 120 years due to mounting problems, particularly the financial crisis and food scarcity. - The cahiers (lists of grievances) of the Third Estate called for the abolition of feudal dues, taxation privileges, and special feudal laws, the establishment of equality under the law, and religious freedom. - The Estates General meeting was unable to solve the problems because of its composition and the king's support for traditional voting procedures. - Ways to avoid the revolution: - The king could have implemented a clear policy of constitutional and fiscal reforms. - Taxes could have been distributed equitably. - The king could have worked with competent ministers. - The ancient system of government could have been reformed. - Expenditure at the royal court could have been reduced. - The people of France could have been cushioned from the effects of poor harvests. #### COURSE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [1789-1799] ##### THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY [17 June 1789-1791] - The National Assembly was the first revolutionary government. ###### Reforms of the National Assembly a] Abolition of feudalism and special privileges of the nobility - This meant the end of the aristocratic dominance and sought to create a society based on equality before the law. b] Approval of a civil constitution of the clergy [August 1789] - This action subordinated the Catholic Church to the French government, leading to significant conflict and division within French society. c] Dissolution of ecclesiastical orders. - Monasteries and other religious institutions were disbanded, reducing the Church's influence and control over land and resources. d] Appropriation of church lands as public property - Seized Church lands were used to back the assignat, a new paper currency, in an attempt to stabilize the nation's finances. e] Decentralisation of local government. - Power was shifted away from the central government to local administrations, promoting regional autonomy. f] Creation of an elective judiciary. - Judges were elected rather than appointed, in line with the revolutionary ideals of popular sovereignty and civic participation. g] Provision of a new constitution of France in 1791 ##### Royal Session and Tennis Court Oath The members of the assembly adjourned [moved] to a nearby Tennis Court building and took an oath [vowed] “never to dissolve the national assembly until the constitution of the kingdom shall be established”. ##### Storming of Bastille [July 1789] The mob plundered shops, broke open jails and finally stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789. Bastille was the notorious prison which symbolized the oppression of the ancient regime. ##### Achievements of the National Assembly a] Abolition of feudalism b] The Civil Constitution of the clergy c] The 1791 constitution d] The 4 August Session of 1789 [the surrender of feudal privileges] e] Declaration of the rights of men [August 1789] f] Legal and administrative reforms ##### The March of Women [5 October 1789] 6000-7000 women marched to Versailles to clamor for bread and to fetch the king to Paris. 6000-7000 women marched to Versailles to clamor for bread and to fetch the king to Paris. ##### The king’s reaction to Revolutionary changes ###### \
The flight to Varennes [June 1791] Louis xvi decided to fly to the west where he could find help from Austria and émigrés. He wanted to seek help from foreign rulers [absolute monarchs] to stem the revolutionary tide in France. Effects / Results Louis xvi’s attempted escape / flight to Varennes -The revolutionaries lost trust in Louis xvi
-The constitutional monarch idea which people wanted was under threat. ##### The New Constitution [1791] a] Legislative power b] Executive power c] Judicial power [Administration of Justice] ###### Weaknesses / Flaws of the Constitution of 1791 a] The lack of a strong executive authority was a grave defect. b] The bourgeoisie character of the constitution was its chief defect. c] Lack of administrative experience d] The continued exclusion of the legislative authority from any ministerial office meant that there was no minister of quality. #### THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY [October 1791-1792] It succeeded the National Assembly. ##### Composition of the Legislative Assembly It had 745 members of whom 264 were Feuillants or rightists who were in favour of a constitutional monarchy, although not necessarily of the existing constitution. ##### The threat of counter-revolution These were the non-juring priests in La Vendee and the Bastille émigrés in the Netherlands and the Rhine territories. #### War, Terror and Dictatorship [1792-1795] ##### The 1792 War This war was between France and the allied powers of Austria, Prussia and Sardinia [an Italian state]. ##### Causes of this war 1] The role of Marie Antoinette
2] The untenable position of the monarchy in France
3] The Declaration of Pillnitz on 27 August
4] The warlike mood in France
5] The accession of Francis I to the throne of Austria ###### Results / Effects of the war 1] Heavy losses on the French side
2] Increased patriotism of the French people
3] Increasing insecurity of the Royal family ##### The Brunswick Manifesto [28 July 1792] A Duke is a nobleman of the highest rank. The Manifesto declared that the allies were calling on France to suppress anarchy and restore the king, Louis xvi to his rightful position of authority ###### Effects of the Manifesto a] There was increased violence, especially in the capital [Paris]
b] The rise of the Revolutionary Commune in Paris
c] Loss of control by the Legislative Assembly ##### Danton’s Coup d’ etat l
The New Constitution of 1793 [June 24] \
The constitution was however never implemented because of the situation within and outside France. The security situation had deteriorated so much that normal government was suspended, leading to the so called Reign of Terror. ##### The Reign of Terror [1793-1794] This was the period in the revolution when the government of France as embodied in the Convention deliberately adopted a policy of terror in order to instill fear of the republic in the hearts of the royalists ###### Causes of the Reign of Terror The reign of terror was caused by the deteriorating situation both internally and externally. Internal threats ###### The Machinery of the Terror The Convention entrusted all executive authority to a secret committee of 9 members, known as the Committee of Public Safety. b] Religious Terror
c] Military Terror
d] Political Terror Results of the Reign of Terror Positive Results / Effects -France managed to deal with external threats by 1793. The external enemy which is the first coalition was repulsed across every border and the counter-revolutionary spirit was contained.
-Due to economic terror the value of the assignats remained fairly firm.
-Internal revolts in places like La Vendee, Lyons and Marseilles, were suppressed. The last internal revolt in La Vendee was crushed on 23 December 1793. Negative Effects / Results -It resulted in the death of many innocent people through the law of suspects.
-The dechristianising activities of the Herbertists had compromised the unity of the nation as the Roman Catholic Church was the majority religion in France
-The intensification of the terror by Robespierre after it had accomplished its purpose was totally unjustified as it was prompted by personal selfish ambition
-The terror claimed thousands of lives and it was not just against recalcitrant [disobedient] nobility and clergy but also treacherous mass of ordinary French women and men who were unfortunate to fall victims of twists and turns of party strife [conflicts]. ##### Role played by Robespierre [Francois Marie Isidore de Maximilien Robespierre] in the French Revolution ##### Consequences of the fall of Robespierre -The Revolutionary Tribunal had been weakened.
-The Jacobin club was closed.
-The Committee of Public Safety and Committee of General Security lost their despotic powers.
-The Convention retained its grip on the Revolution and the remaining Girondins regained access to the Convention.
-The economic tyranny was relaxed and forced loans were abolished.
-Religious freedom / toleration was reinstated.
-A list of laws against the non-juring priests and against the émigrés was revoked.
-The bourgeoisie regained political control which it had temporarily lost to the rash efforts to establish a republican democracy.
-To forestall any further attempt to restore the monarchy, the bourgeoisie in the convention drew up the constitution of 1795. #### THE DIRECTORY [1795-1799] It was the fourth and last revolutionary government. ##### The New Constitution [1795] a] Legislative Authority
b] Executive Authority
c] Voting qualifications ##### Problems faced by the Directory The Directory inherited most of its problems from the Convention. However, it had a fair amount of success. Many of the reforms Napoleon was to later introduce were possible by the preliminary work of the Directory. a] Financial problems
b] Prices of basic commodities especially bread was high.
c] There was persistent inflation. ###### \
Political Problems a] Armed bands of robbers terrorized the rural areas.
b] A revolt in La Vendee broke anew.
c] The legislative authority was divided into republicans and constitutional monarchists.
d] The Babeuf plot
e] Externally, war continued, first with the first coalition and later with the second coalition from February 1798. ##### Coup d’état of Fructidor [4 September 1797] ##### Coup D’état of Floreal [April 1798] ##### Achievements of the Directory Despite many setbacks it faced, the Directory had some achievements Comparatively, the directory stayed longer in power than all the other three revolutionary governments [1795-1799]. [National Assembly 1789-91, Legislative Assembly 1791-92, National Convention 1792-95. Directory 1795-99] ##### The Italian Campaign [1796] Napoleon gave France a taste of glory and victory and victory. They signed the treaty of Campo Formio. Lombardy was made a republic. ##### Treaty of Campo Formio [October 1797] ##### The Egyptian Campaign [1798] #### The Coup d’état of 18-19 Brummaire [November 1799] Sieyes and Napoleon formed a plot to overthrow the government. A show of a democratic government was preserved. The new dictatorship was approved by an overwhelming plebiscite – a new political weapon of Napoleon. ##### Reasons for the success of the Coup d’état of Brummaire There was growing dissatisfaction with the directory, which was under suspicion of repeating war for its own interest. The directory had thus become very unpopular The French people were weary with war. They wanted a leader who could transform the external war into an honourable peace. #### THE NAPOLEONIC ERA / THE NAPOLEONIC FRANCE 1799-1815 Between 1799, when Napoleon became first consul and 1814, he exerted a great influence on European affairs that this period became known as the Napoleonic era. In 1804, Napoleon was made „Emperor‟ of France. With the formation of the empire, France became a monarchy again in a new guise. The republic was overthrown. The period 1801-1803 was the period of peace in Europe and domestic reforms in France. Napoleon‟s most constructive work was done during this period of peace. He stayed in France and devoted himself to the initiation of various reforms ##### Reasons for the rise of Napoleon I to power / Factors which led to the rise of Napoleon 1 a] Corruption of the directors led to the rise of Napoleon. b] The directory became unpopular as it was surviving on coups. c] The directory’s failure to solve social problems in France led to the rise of Napoleon. d