Cold War: Korea, Vietnam, and Third World Conflicts

Korean War

The Korean War involved a comparison and contrast with the Vietnam War, highlighting how the Cold War led to actual wars in Asia supported by superpowers. Currently, Vietnam is a Communist country, while Korea remains divided into Communist and non-Communist nations. Key terms include the 38th parallel, dividing North and South Korea; Douglas MacArthur, the UN commander; Ho Chi Minh, a Vietnamese nationalist; the domino theory, suggesting the fall of one Southeast Asian nation to communism would lead to others falling; Ngo Dinh Diem, leader of anti-Communist South Vietnam; Vietcong, Communist guerrillas in South Vietnam; Vietnamization, a plan for U.S. troop withdrawal; and the Khmer Rouge, Communist rebels in Cambodia.

Background

Following World War II, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel, with the North being Communist and supported by the Soviets, and the South being non-Communist and supported by Western powers. On June 25, 1950, North Korea attacked South Korea, seen by President Truman as a repeat of actions by Hitler, Mussolini, and the Japanese in the 1930s. Truman's containment policy was tested, leading to UN intervention with 15 nations participating under General Douglas MacArthur. UN troops pursued North Koreans across the 38th parallel, prompting China to send 300,000 troops into North Korea in October 1950, pushing UN forces back and capturing Seoul by January 1951. MacArthur's call for a nuclear attack on China led to his removal by Truman. A cease-fire was signed in July 1953, leaving the border near the 38th parallel and resulting in 4 million deaths. Korea remained divided with a demilitarized zone. North Korea, under Communist dictator Kim Il Sung, established collective farms, developed heavy industry, and built up the military, while South Korea prospered with aid and adopted a democratic constitution in 1987.

Vietnam War

The U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War stemmed from the Cold War containment policy. France controlled Southeast Asia (French Indochina), and Ho Chi Minh sought Communist support. Vietnamese Nationalists and Communists fought the French, leading to a major French defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. Eisenhower described the domino theory, warning of communism spreading through Southeast Asia. Vietnam was divided at 17° north latitude, with Communist forces under Ho Chi Minh in the North and an anti-Communist government under Ngo Dinh Diem in the South. Diem's dictatorial rule led to the growth of Communist guerrillas (Vietcong) in the South. The Gulf of Tonkin incident in August 1964 led to Congress authorizing troops to Vietnam, with over 0.5 million U.S. soldiers in combat by 1968. The war became unpopular in the United States, and Nixon began Vietnamization, withdrawing U.S. troops while increasing the South Vietnamese combat role. The last troops left in 1973, and in 1975, North Vietnam overran South Vietnam, resulting in over 1.5 million Vietnamese and 58,000 American deaths. Postwar Southeast Asia saw the Communist Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, slaughtering 2 million people in Cambodia. North Vietnam imposed tight controls over the South, renaming Saigon as Ho Chi Minh City.

The Third World

The Third World consisted of developing nations, often newly independent and not aligned with either superpower, located in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. The United States and the Soviet Union backed wars of revolution, liberation, or counterrevolution, with the CIA and KGB engaging in covert activities. The United States provided military aid, built schools, and sent volunteer workers, while the Soviets offered military and technical assistance. India and Indonesia formed a “third force” of independent countries. Major strategies of the Cold War included foreign aid, espionage, multinational alliances, propaganda, brinkmanship, and surrogate wars.

Confrontations in Latin America

In January 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista in Cuba. Castro nationalized the Cuban economy, leading to a U.S. embargo, and turned to the Soviets for aid. In 1962, Khrushchev began building missile sites in Cuba, leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where Kennedy demanded their removal and blockaded Cuba. Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles in return for the U.S. promise not to invade Cuba. In Nicaragua, the United States had funded the Somoza dictatorship. In 1979, Sandinista rebels toppled Somoza’s son, Daniel Ortega. The United States supported Nicaraguan anti-Communist forces called the Contras.

Confrontations in the Middle East

Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in Iran embraced Western governments, leading to opposition led by Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini. In 1979, Islamic revolutionaries seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took hostages. In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, leading the United States to supply American weapons to the Afghan rebels, called mujahideen.

The Cold War Thaws

After Stalin's death, Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and called for “peaceful competition” with capitalist states. In 1956, the Hungarian army joined protesters to overthrow Hungary’s Soviet-controlled government, and Imre Nagy formed a new government but was eventually executed. Alexander Dubcvek loosened controls on censorship to offer his country socialism with “a human face."