Week 6 Reading 2

Topic emphasis: Repatriation of Benin bronzes from museums, primarily in Europe and the US, back to Nigeria.
Context around the looted status of these artifacts during British colonial efforts in 1897.

The Benin bronzes are actually brass artifacts prominently associated with the Benin Kingdom, which is present-day Nigeria.
Clarification that the modern country of Benin (formerly Dahomey) is not the same as the Kingdom of Benin.

Established by the Edo people; predecessors to the Kingdom of Benin.
Term "Benin" was popularized in the 15th century by Portuguese explorers.
The city was called Ubinu by locals.
The rainforest setting provided tactical advantages for defense and resource richness, including fish, hunting, medicinal plants, and construction materials like wood and ivory.

Difficulty in bringing large armed forces due to narrow paths within dense rainforests.
Hunting became prevalent due to domestic animals being affected by Tsetse fly diseases.
Later adaptation to farming occurred as some animals developed immunity.

Remnants include massive earthworks reflecting advanced city planning.
City wall measures approximately (15 \text{ km}) long and (20 \text{ m}) deep (about (8) miles long and (60) feet tall).
Walls constructed using ditches and ramparts.

Total area contained by walls: (6,500 \text{ sq km}).
Considered the world's largest earthworks completed prior to modern construction techniques, as noted in the 1974 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records.
Benin City’s walls were described to be four times longer than the Great Wall of China, using 100 times more material than the Great Pyramid of Cheops.
Estimated (150 \text{ million hours}) of labor were required for the development.

Ethnomathematician Ron Eglisch's analysis revealed the planned layout of the city utilized fractals.
European interpretations of African architecture viewed it as primitive without understanding local mathematical concepts.

By (1200 - 1300 \text{ CE}), Benin was a flourishing urban center engaged in trade with Europeans, initially driven by gold mining.
Portuguese interactions began in (1489), establishing a relationship lasting four hundred years, which allowed for the exchange of various goods, including slaves and ivory.
Descriptions of Benin City categorized it as orderly and prosperous, countering stereotypes of crime and poverty often associated with colonized regions.

Central figure: the Oba (king) governed with complex social rules and etiquette, supported by both palace chiefs (inherited roles) and town chiefs (merit-based roles).
Rulers of Benin expanded territorial control to secure trade agreements with Europeans, legally monopolizing valuable goods and controlling merchant rights within the regions.
The initial slave trade occurred during the early military expansions before being replaced by other trades.

The relationship with Portuguese traders enriched Benin through the exchange of gunpowder and brass due to resource limitations in local metal production.

Benin's LOST WAX technique has been practiced continuously for over eight hundred years; it is a method shared by various ancient civilizations globally.
The initial assumption was that metallurgy was introduced by the Portuguese, however, evidence shows local metalworking existed since (500 \text{ BCE}).

Composition versus common terminology: referred to as "bronzes" while primarily being copper alloys.
The need for authentication complicated by contamination from clay residues and lack of stratigraphic data from excavation.
Notable degradation post-1897 due to transportation and museum curation practices.

The article "The Dating Game" discusses difficulties in dating these artifacts; mechanisms discussed include thermoluminescence dating which relies on trapped electrons within clay from the casting process.

Naturalistic representation in bronze artworks, depicting ceremonial and cultural narratives including portraits of the Oba and historical events.
Artworks often displayed in royal settings with immense significance tied to class status, where only certain individuals had rights to materials such as coral.

Various plaques portraying distinguished figures, with background patterns having specific meanings related to healing rites.
Contextual identification through attire rather than explicit naming.

The 1897 British Punitive Expedition was a retaliation against local opposition and resulted in the looting of Benin artworks, with over 2,500 artifacts taken to Britain.
The British Museum acquired nearly 40% of captured items which drew global attention to West African art.

Calls for repatriation began in the 1970s with cultural festivals prompting further international discussion.
Notable confrontations over the return of significant artifacts and the challenges posed by insurance fees.

As of 2020, 161 institutions possess Benin bronzes, including major museums like the British Museum, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and several institutions in the UK and Nigeria.
Some institutions began repatriation initiatives while others hesitate, citing redisplay efforts rather than full ownership return.

A newly proposed museum aimed at directly confronting colonial narratives by involving Nigerian communities for significant historical engagement.
Ongoing international dialogues leading to occasional return agreements; however, many institutions still protect their collections.

Current situation reflects a gradual shift towards addressing historical injustices related to colonial theft, indicating a move towards cooperation but also highlighting the complexity and challenges involved in cultural restitution.