Final Exam Study Guide – 2025       Based on Text Chapters 2, 7, 14, 16, 20-23

Chapter 2 – Environmental Economics

1.     Compare the conventional model of economic activity with the ecological model of economic activity.  What is the fundamental difference in the relationship between the economy and the environment of each model?

a.      The classical model sees the economy as separate from nature and focuses only on money and
business. It doesn’t show where resources come from. The ecological model includes nature, showing
that the economy depends on clean air, water, and energy. It also shows that waste affects the
environment.

2.     Why is the GDP (gross domestic product) an inaccurate indicator of a nation’s economic status? 

a.      GDP and GNP only count how much money a country makes, even if it comes from harming the
environment.

3.     How do the NNP (net national product) and the GPI (Genuine Progress Indicator) correct the problems associated with the GDP?

a.      NNP subtracts the cost of using up natural resources. GPI adds in things like health,
clean air, and happiness to show true progress

4.     Describe the three components of a nation’s wealth (i.e., types of capital).  

1. A nation’s wealth includes natural capital (resources like water and minerals), human capital (skills, knowledge, and health of people), and manufactured capital (infrastructure like factories and roads). Each is vital for economic success and must be managed sustainably for long-term prosperity.

5.     Compare the difference between the ‘take-make-waste’ economic model vs. ‘borrow-use-return’ & ‘industrial ecology’ models.  

1. The 'take-make-waste' model is unsustainable, where resources are used and discarded. The 'borrow-use-return model focuses on reusing resources for sustainability. Industrial ecology creates closed-loop systems where waste is minimized and materials are reused, promoting a more eco-friendly and efficient economy.

Chapter 7 – Tragedy of the Commons

1.     What is the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’?

a.      The "Tragedy of the Commons" happens when people overuse shared natural resources because
everyone is acting in their own interest, not thinking about the long-term effects.   

2.     How can the tragedy of the commons be avoided by limiting freedom of access?

a.      This can be avoided by setting rules, like limiting how much people can take or creating permits. When access
is controlled, it helps protect resources for the future.

3.     What does it mean to “fish down the food chain”?  How has this happened?

a.      "Fishing down the food chain" means that when large, top predator fish like tuna and cod become
rare, people start catching smaller fish and creatures lower on the food chain, like sardines or
shrimp. This happens because the big fish have been overfished, so people go after whatever is
left. Over time, this damages the whole ocean ecosystem.

4.     Explain how ‘catch shares’ and marine reserves can work to protect marine stocks. 

a.      "Catch shares" are a system where fishers are given a certain share of the total allowed catch. This
helps stop the rush to overfish because each person knows their share is secure. Marine reserves
are areas of the ocean where fishing is not allowed at all. These safe zones help fish populations
recover and grow. Both methods help manage fishing in a more sustainable and fair way.

Chapter 14 – Fossil Fuels & Nuclear Energy

1.     What are the three primary fossil fuels, and how much do they contribute to the U.S. energy supply?

1. The three main fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. These fuels make up about 80% of the energy used in the U.S. Coal used to be the biggest source but is now less common due to pollution. Oil is mainly used for cars and heating, while natural gas is used for electricity and heating. Even though renewable energy is growing, fossil fuels still dominate the energy mix.

2.     Explain the concept of ‘peak oil’ and the Hubbert curve.  What are the trends in oil consumption, discovery of new reserves, and future oil production?  What does peak oil mean for the future?

a.     Peak oil is the time when we reach the most oil we can ever produce, and after that, production goes
down. The Hubbert curve shows oil production rising, peaking, then falling. Right now, we are using more
oil than we are finding. That means in the future, oil will become harder to get and more expensive. We’ll
need to find new energy sources.

3.     What are the environmental and economic problems associated with extracting oil from oil sands and oil shale?

a.      Getting oil from oil sands and shale uses a lot of water and energy. It also damages the land and pollutes
water.

4.     What are the environmental problems with removing natural gas using hydraulic fracturing (fracking)?

a.      Fracking, which is used to get gas, can cause water pollution and even small earthquakes. These
methods also release gases that cause climate change. They can be harmful to the environment and
health.

5.     What are the environmental problems associated with surface mining of coal and mountaintop removal?

a.     Mining coal, especially by blowing up mountaintops, hurts the environment. It destroys forests and pollutes
rivers and streams. Coal dust and dirty water can also harm people’s health. Nearby communities often suffer
from noise, pollution, and loss of land.

6.     What environmental, health, and economic problems are associated with nuclear power?

a.      Nuclear power creates dangerous waste that stays harmful for thousands of years. Accidents at nuclear plants can be very serious. It’s also very expensive to build and shut down nuclear power plants. Even though it doesn’t cause air pollution, it still has many risks.

7.     Understand the concept of radioactive half-life and be prepared to compute number of half-lives.

1. A half-life is the time it takes for half of a radioactive substance to disappear. For example, if you start with 100 grams of a substance, after one half-life, you would have 50 grams left. After two half-lives, you would have 25 grams. To find how much remains, you use the formula: Remaining amount=Original amount×(12)number of half-livesRemaining amount=Original amount×(21​)number of half-lives

8.     What problems are associated with the long-term containment of nuclear wastes?

1. Storing nuclear waste is tricky because it stays dangerous for thousands of years. The storage sites can wear out over time, and waste could leak, causing harm. We also need to keep the waste secure to prevent theft or accidents. Plus, finding places where people will allow these sites to be built is a big challenge.

Chapter 16 – Renewable Energy

1.     What are the three fundamental problems in harnessing solar energy?

a.      Collection: Solar energy is spread out and varies with weather and location.]
Conversion: It's difficult to turn solar energy into usable forms like electricity.
Storage: Storing solar energy for later use is challenging

2.     Where is wind power being harvested, and what is the future potential for wind farms?

a.      Wind power is used in many places like the U.S., China, Denmark, and other countries. Big wind farms
are found in places with strong, steady winds, like the Midwest U.S. and offshore (in the ocean).
In the future, wind power could give us a lot more clean energy. The U.S. hopes wind can provide 20%
of its electricity by 2030, and wind farms could be built on land and out at sea. Wind energy is growing
fast and doesn’t pollute the air.

3.     How can we convert biomass to useful energy, and what are the potential environmental impacts of each?

a.      Biomass energy comes from plants, wood, and waste. It can be used by burning wood for heat and
electricity, or by breaking down waste and manure to create biogas. Crops like corn can also be turned into
fuel. While biomass is useful, burning it can release pollution and harm forests if too many trees are cut.
However, using waste helps reduce trash and fossil fuel use, making it a cleaner option when managed well

4.     What biofuels can be used for transportation, and what is the potential for increasing biofuels in the USA?

1. Biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel can be used to power vehicles. Ethanol is made from crops like corn and is mixed with gasoline, while biodiesel is made from things like vegetable oils and animal fats. In the USA, there's potential to use more biofuels by growing more crops for fuel, improving the way biofuels are made, and finding new sources like algae. However, we need to figure out how to balance fuel production with food needs and make it more sustainable.

5.     How do lithium fuel cells work, and what is being done to adapt them to power vehicles?

1. Lithium fuel cells use lithium batteries to store and release energy to power vehicles. Lithium ions move between parts of the battery, creating electricity. To make these batteries better for cars, researchers are working on making them last longer, charge faster, and be cheaper to produce. They're also focusing on adding more charging stations to make electric cars easier to use.

6.     What is geothermal energy, and what are two ways it is being harnessed?

a.      Geothermal energy is heat that comes from deep inside the Earth. It is found in places where hot rocks are close to the surface, like volcanoes or hot springs.

Two ways we use geothermal energy are:

1. Making electricity - Steam from underground is used to spin turbines and produce electricity. This happens in power plants.

2. Heating and cooling buildings – We can use underground pipes (called geothermal heat pumps) to bring heat into buildings in the winter and cool them in the summer. This works almost anywhere, not just in volcanic areas.

Chapter 20 – Water Pollution and its Prevention

1.     What is the difference between point and non-point sources of pollutants?  

a.      Point sources of pollution come from one clear spot, like a pipe from a factory or a sewage drain.
They're easier to find and fix because we know exactly where the pollution is coming from. Non-
point sources are harder to deal with because the pollution comes from many places at once, like
when rain washes fertilizers and trash off roads and farms into rivers. Since it’s spread out, it’s
harder to control.

2.     What is the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary wastewater treatment?

a.      Primary treatment takes out big stuff like trash and solid waste. Secondary treatment uses helpful
bacteria to break down leftover waste. Tertiary treatment is the last step, and it removes harmful
chemicals and germs to make the water as clean as possible

3.     Explain the difference between oligotrophic and eutrophic waters.  Describe eutrophication (i.e., creation of a “dead zone”).

a.      Oligotrophic water is clean and clear, with few nutrients—great for fish. Eutrophic water has too
many nutrients, which causes algae to grow fast. When the algae die, bacteria eat them and use
up all the oxygen. Without oxygen, fish and other animals die. This creates a "dead zone" where
nothing can survive.

Chapter 21 – Solid Waste: Landfills & Recycling

1.     What is municipal solid waste (MSW)?  What does it consist of?

1. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is the trash we throw away every day, like from homes, schools, and businesses. It includes things like paper, plastic, food scraps, cans, bottles, and old clothes.

2.     What are the problems of landfills?

a.      Leachate: Harmful chemicals can leak into the ground and pollute water.
• Methane: Decomposing trash creates methane gas, which is bad for the environment.
• Space: Landfills take up a lot of land, which could be used for other things.
• Slow decomposition: Some materials like plastic don’t break down easily and stay in the
landfill for a long time.  

3.     What are the three basic control systems used so that landfills do not negatively impact the environment?

To keep landfills from harming the environment, they use three main controls:

1. Liners: A strong layer at the bottom to stop waste from leaking into the ground.

2. Leachate Collection Systems: These collect liquid that leaks out of trash to prevent it from polluting water.

3. Gas Collection Systems: These trap gases (like methane) that are released when trash breaks down, keeping them from polluting the air.

4.     What is the problem with the siting of new landfills?  Explain NIMBY.

a.      Finding places for new landfills is hard because of NIMBY (people don’t want landfills near
them), environmental concerns (pollution risk), zoning laws that restrict where landfills can be built, and
the limited space available, especially in growing urban areas.

• NIMBY means "Not In My Backyard." It’s when people think certain things, like landfills or factories, are needed but don’t want them close to where they live. They prefer these projects to be built somewhere else.

5.     What are the advantages and disadvantages of WTE (waste-to-energy)?

a.      WTE reduces landfill waste and produces energy from burning trash, which helps reduce methane
emissions. However, it can cause air pollution, is expensive to set up, and some people oppose it due to
concerns about health and pollution.

6.     What are the environmental advantages of source reduction and recycling?  Are there disadvantages?

a.      Source reduction and recycling save resources, use less energy, and reduce pollution. However, they can
be costly to set up, not all materials can be recycled, and improper sorting can contaminate the recycling
process

7.     What is ‘integrated waste management’?  What approaches are needed to make it work?

a.      integrated waste management combines methods like source reduction, recycling, and waste-to-energy to
reduce waste and environmental harm. For it to succeed, it requires public participation, cooperation from
businesses and local governments, and proper landfill management for non-recyclable waste

Chapter 22 – Hazardous Chemicals (covered in your text reading and slides)

1.     Define what is meant by “total product life cycle,” and describe the stages at which pollutants may enter the environment. 

a.      The total product life cycle is the whole process a product goes through, from beginning to end. It
starts with getting raw materials, then making the product, moving it to stores, using it, and finally
throwing it away. Pollutants can enter the environment at any of these stages. Even after people
throw things away, dangerous substances can leak into the soil or water.

2.     What is the difference between ‘cradle-to-grave’ and ‘cradle-to-cradle’ product life cycles?

1. Cradle-to-Grave means a product’s life goes from creation (cradle) to disposal (grave). Once it's used, it’s thrown away or burned, with no plan for recycling.

2. Cradle-to-Cradle is a better model where products are made to be used again and again. After a product is used, it gets recycled or repurposed, so nothing is wasted.

3.     What are the classes of chemicals that pose serious long-term toxic risk to human health, and how do they affect food chains?

a.      The two main types of dangerous chemicals are heavy metals (like mercury and lead) and synthetic
organic chemicals (like pesticides). These chemicals build up inside animals (bioaccumulation) and
get stronger higher up the food chain (biomagnification), which can harm wildlife and people.

4.     What law copes with abandoned hazardous-waste sites?  What are the main features of CERCLA (a.k.a. Superfund)?

The law that helps clean up abandoned toxic waste sites is CERCLA, also called Superfund. It:

1. Finds and cleans up toxic sites.

2. Makes polluters pay for cleanup.

3. Sets up a fund (Superfund) to help pay for cleanups when the responsible people can't be found or can’t pay.

5.     Be familiar with examples of chemical disasters mentioned in class, such as Minamata, Bhopal, and Love Canal.

Minamata (Japan, 1950s): A factory dumped mercury into water, poisoning people and animals.

Bhopal (India, 1984): A gas leak from a chemical plant killed thousands of people and made many more sick.

Love Canal (New York, 1970s): A neighborhood was built on top of a toxic waste dump, causing health problems for people living there.

Chapter 23 – Sustainable Communities

1.     How did the structure of cities change after World War II?  What factors were responsible?  What is urban sprawl?  

1. After World War II, cities changed because more people started moving to the suburbs. This happened because of cars, bigger houses, and better highways. People wanted more space, so they moved out of crowded cities. Urban sprawlhappens when cities spread out too much, taking up a lot of land and leaving city centers less busy.

2.     What federal law tended to support urban sprawl, and why?

1. The Federal Highway Act of 1956 helped urban sprawl because it built a lot of highways. This made it easier for people to live far from the city and drive to work, leading more people to move to the suburbs.

3.     Compare the costs and benefits of urban sprawl, looking at environmental and quality of life impacts.

1. Urban sprawl has both costs and benefits. The costs include environmental damage, as it takes up land, harms wildlife, and increases pollution. It also leads to traffic jams and higher resource use, such as more water and electricity. On the other hand, the benefits include more space for homes and yards, quieter, less crowded areas, and often cheaper housing compared to the city.

4.     What is “smart growth”?  What are the four smart growth strategies that address urban sprawl?

a.      Smart growth is a better way to build cities that protects nature and uses space wisely. It includes
building homes and stores close together, using taller buildings, offering different housing types, and
making neighborhoods walkable

5.     What are the characteristics of livable cities?

a.      A livable city has good public transport, clean parks, and fresh air. Homes are close to schools and
stores, and neighborhoods are safe and friendly. It also has less pollution and affordable places to
live.

6.     How do exurban migration, urban sprawl, and urban decay become a vicious cycle?

1. When people move even further away from the city (called exurban migration), it makes urban sprawl worse. As people leave the city, the city can start to decay, with empty buildings, more crime, and businesses closing. This makes the city less appealing, so more people move to the suburbs, and the cycle continues.

Compare and Contrast

1. Classical vs. Ecological Models of Economic Activity

2. Produced, Natural, and Intangible Capital

3. GNP (or GDP) vs. GPI

4. Environment vs. Economy (False Dichotomy)

5. Take-Make-Waste vs. Borrow-Use-Return Models

6. Cradle-to-Grave vs. Cradle-to-Cradle

Comprehensive – Review the following topics from throughout the semester

1. Sustainability and Sustainable Development

• Sustainability: Meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.

• Sustainable development: Economic development that is conducted without depletion of natural resources or harm to ecosystems.

2. Biblical Stewardship of Creation and ‘Dominion’

• Biblical stewardship: The idea that humans are caretakers of the Earth, called to protect and manage God’s creation responsibly.

• Dominion: Often misunderstood as exploitation; in biblical context, it means responsible governance, reflecting God’s care and order

3. Ecosystem Components

• Abiotic: Non-living components like sunlight, water, temperature, soil.

• Biotic: Living components like plants, animals, decomposers, and microorganisms.

4. Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling in Food Webs

• Energy flow: Moves one-way through ecosystems—from producers to consumers to decomposers. Energy is lost as heat at each step (Second Law of Thermodynamics).

• Nutrient cycling: Nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are recycled through biogeochemical cycles (unlike energy).

5. Trophic Levels and Their Functions

• Producers (autotrophs): Make their own food via photosynthesis (e.g., plants, algae).

• Primary consumers: Herbivores that eat producers.

• Secondary/tertiary consumers: Carnivores/omnivores that eat other animals.

• Decomposers: Break down dead organisms, returning nutrients to the soil.

6. Keystone Species

• A species that has a disproportionately large effect on its ecosystem relative to its abundance.

• Example: Sea otters control sea urchin populations, protecting kelp forests.

7. Population Growth and Population Dynamics

• Exponential growth: Rapid increase in population without constraints.

• Logistic growth: Population growth slows as it approaches carrying capacity.

• Population dynamics: Influenced by birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration.

8. Demographic Transition

• A model describing how population growth changes with economic development:

• High birth/death rates

• Death rates drop (better healthcare)

• Birth rates decline

• Low birth/death rates (population stabilizes)

9. Green Revolution

• A period of increased agricultural productivity through the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and high-yield crop varieties.

• Pros: Reduced hunger, increased food production.

• Cons: Environmental degradation, dependence on chemicals, loss of biodiversity.

10. Biodiversity, Its Value, and Extinction Threats

• Biodiversity: Variety of life across all levels—genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

• Values: Ecosystem services, medicine, food, cultural and intrinsic worth.

• Threats: Habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, overexploitation, climate change

11. Water Cycle and Water Shortages

• Water cycle: Movement of water through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff.

• Shortages: Caused by overuse, pollution, climate change, and inefficient water use (e.g., agriculture).

12. Eutrophication and Dead Zones

• Eutrophication: Nutrient overload (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus), leading to algal blooms and oxygen depletion.

• Dead zones: Areas with too little oxygen to support most marine life, often caused by runoff from agriculture.

13. Factory Farming and Risks

• Factory farming: Large-scale, industrialized animal agriculture.

• Risks: Pollution (waste, antibiotics), animal welfare concerns, zoonotic disease transmission, antibiotic resistance.

14. Problems with Pesticides and IPM

• Problems:

  • Resistance development in pests

  • Harm to non-target species (including humans)

  • Pollution of soil and water

• IPM (Integrated Pest Management):

  • A strategy combining biological, physical, and chemical tools to manage pests sustainably.

  • Focus on prevention and minimal pesticide use.

Vocabulary – Be familiar with the following terms and be able to define them.

Climate & Energy

• Adaptation to climate change: Adjusting human and natural systems to minimize damage from climate impacts.

• Mitigation to climate change: Efforts to reduce or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases.

• Biofuels: Fuels made from plant materials, such as ethanol or biodiesel.

• Biomass energy: Renewable energy from organic materials like wood, crop waste, or animal manure.

• Concentrating solar power (CSP): Uses mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight to produce heat, which generates electricity.

• Electric vehicle (EV): A car powered fully by electricity, stored in batteries.

• Geothermal energy: Heat energy from within the Earth, used for heating and electricity.

• Hydrogen combustion: Burning hydrogen as a fuel; produces only water vapor as a byproduct.

• Hydrogen fuel cell: Converts hydrogen gas into electricity through a chemical reaction with oxygen.

• Photovoltaic cell (PV): A device that converts sunlight directly into electricity.

• Tidal power: Renewable energy generated from the movement of tides.

• Wind farms: Groups of wind turbines that generate electricity.

• Wind power: Electricity generated by the movement of wind.

Pollution & Waste

• Bioaccumulation: The build-up of toxic substances in an organism over time.

• Biomagnification: The increasing concentration of toxins as they move up the food chain.

• Chemical hazards: Harmful effects of chemical substances on human health or the environment.

• Dead zone: An oxygen-depleted area in a body of water where most marine life cannot survive.

• Eutrophication: Over-enrichment of water with nutrients, leading to excessive algae growth and oxygen depletion.

• Integrated waste management: A strategy combining waste reduction, recycling, composting, and disposal.

• Leachate: Contaminated liquid that drains from a landfill.

• Material recovery facilities (MRFs): Plants that sort and process recyclables for reuse.

• Recycling: Processing used materials into new products to prevent waste.

• Sanitary landfill: A waste disposal site designed to prevent pollution, using liners and leachate systems.

• Solid waste: Any discarded solid material from homes, businesses, or industries.

• Source reduction: Minimizing waste before it's created.

• Waste to energy: Converting waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel.

• Landfill gas: Methane and other gases generated by the decomposition of waste in landfills.

• Landfill gas to energy: Capturing and using landfill gas to generate electricity or heat.

• Landfill liner: A barrier at the base of a landfill to prevent leachate from contaminating groundwater.

Society & Development

• Catch shares: Fishing management system allocating a share of total allowable catch to individuals or communities.

• Fishing down food chain: Harvesting fish at lower trophic levels as higher-level species are depleted.

• Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI): A metric that accounts for environmental and social factors, unlike GDP.

• Gross National Product (GNP): The total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year.

• Highway Trust Fund: U.S. federal fund that finances highway and mass transit projects, funded by fuel taxes.

• Hybrid electric vehicle: Combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor for better fuel efficiency.

• Industrial ecology: Designing industrial systems that mimic natural ecosystems to reduce waste and improve sustainability.

• Natural capitalism: Economic system that values natural resources and ecosystem services.

• NIMBY ("Not In My Backyard"): Opposition to developments like landfills or power plants near one's home.

• Open access resource: Natural resource not owned by anyone, accessible to all (e.g., oceans, atmosphere).

• Peak oil: The point at which oil production reaches its maximum rate before declining.

• Smart Growth: Urban planning that encourages compact, transit-oriented, walkable communities.

• Solutions-based business model: Business strategy focusing on solving customer and environmental problems.

• Suburbs and Exurbs: Residential areas outside urban centers; exurbs are farther and less densely populated.

• Superfund site (CERCLA): Polluted locations requiring long-term cleanup of hazardous material, funded by the U.S. government.

• Sustainable communities: Places designed to meet present needs without compromising future generations.

• Tragedy of the Commons: When individuals overuse a shared resource, leading to its depletion.

• Urban decay/blight: The deterioration of urban areas due to neglect, poverty, or depopulation.

• Urban sprawl: Uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into surrounding regions.

Whole system design: Holistic approach to designing products or systems that optimize efficiency and sustainability