Advanced Biology Final Exam Study Guide Notes

Advanced Biology Final Exam - Study Guide

Unit 4 - Cell Reproduction

• Vocabulary:
  • Cell cycle, chromosome, sister chromatids, centromere, mitosis, meiosis, diploid, haploid, gamete, autosome, crossing over, fertilization, gene, karyotype, sex chromosome, stem cell, telomere, homologous chromosome, anaphase, apoptosis, cancer, cytokinesis, carcinogen, interphase, chromatin, cyclin, metaphase, telophase, prophase, sister chromatid, spindle apparatus, cyclin-dependent kinase
• Key Concepts:
  • Main phases of the cell cycle:
    • Interphase (G1, S, G2): Cell growth and DNA replication
    • Mitotic Phase (Mitosis and Cytokinesis): Cell division
  • Chromosome:
    • Structure: DNA molecule with associated proteins.
    • Parts: Sister chromatids, centromere.
  • Mitosis (PMAT):
    • Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down, spindle apparatus forms.
    • Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
    • Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
    • Telophase: Chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms, cytokinesis begins.
  • Purpose of mitosis:
    • Growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
  • Cyclins:
    • Proteins that regulate the cell cycle.
    • Function: Activate cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) to control cell cycle transitions.
  • Meiosis vs. Mitosis:
    • Meiosis: Sexual reproduction, two cell divisions, produces four haploid cells.
    • Mitosis: Asexual reproduction, one cell division, produces two diploid cells.
  • Importance of meiosis:
    • Sexual reproduction: Reduces chromosome number, introduces genetic variation.
  • Stages of Meiosis:
    • Meiosis I (PMAT I): Prophase I (crossing over occurs), Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I.
    • Meiosis II (PMAT II): Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II.
    • Crossing over occurs during Prophase I.
  • Diploid vs. Haploid:
    • Diploid: Two sets of chromosomes (2n).
    • Haploid: One set of chromosomes (n).
  • Crossing Over:
    • Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes.
    • Contribution: Increases genetic variation.
  • Apoptosis:
    • Programmed cell death.
  • Cancer:
    • Uncontrolled cell growth and division.
    • Cause: Mutations in genes that regulate the cell cycle.

Unit 5 - Genetics

• Vocabulary:
  • Allele, gene, genotype, phenotype, homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive, codominance, incomplete dominance, pedigree, transcription, codon, RNA, translation, ribosomal RNA, messenger RNA, transfer RNA, anticodon, RNA polymerase, nucleotide, double-helix, Okazaki fragment, semiconservative replication, DNA polymerase
• Key Concepts:
  • Mendel’s Laws:
    • Law of Segregation: Allele pairs separate during gamete formation.
    • Law of Independent Assortment: Alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation.
  • Punnett Square:
    • Monohybrid cross between two heterozygous parents (e.g., Tt x Tt).
      • Genotypes: TT, Tt, tt
      • Phenotypes: Tall, short
  • Genotype vs. Phenotype:
    • Genotype: Genetic makeup (e.g., TT, Tt, tt).
    • Phenotype: Physical traits (e.g., tall, short).
  • Homozygous vs. Heterozygous:
    • Homozygous: Two identical alleles (e.g., TT, tt).
    • Heterozygous: Two different alleles (e.g., Tt).
  • Dominant vs. Recessive Traits:
    • Dominant: Trait expressed when one allele is present (e.g., T).
    • Recessive: Trait expressed only when two alleles are present (e.g., tt).
  • Codominance vs. Incomplete Dominance:
    • Codominance: Both alleles are expressed (e.g., blood type AB).
    • Incomplete Dominance: Blending of traits (e.g., pink flowers from red and white parents).
  • Sex-linked Trait:
    • Trait determined by a gene on a sex chromosome (e.g., hemophilia on the X chromosome).
  • Pedigree Chart:
    • Diagram showing the inheritance of a trait in a family.
    • Interpretation: Identify carriers, affected individuals, and mode of inheritance.
  • Genetic Disorder:
    • Cystic Fibrosis: Recessive inheritance.
  • Role of RNA in Protein Synthesis:
    • mRNA: Carries genetic code from DNA to ribosomes.
    • tRNA: Transfers amino acids to ribosomes.
    • rRNA: Makes up ribosomes.
  • Transcription and Translation:
    • Transcription: DNA is transcribed into mRNA.
    • Translation: mRNA is translated into protein at the ribosome.
  • Codons and Anticodons:
    • Codon: Three-nucleotide sequence on mRNA that specifies an amino acid.
    • Anticodon: Three-nucleotide sequence on tRNA that is complementary to mRNA codon.
  • mRNA, tRNA, rRNA:
    • mRNA: Messenger RNA
    • tRNA: Transfer RNA
    • rRNA: Ribosomal RNA
• Practice Problems:
  1. Tt x tt:
     • Genotypes: Tt, tt
     • Phenotypes: Tall, short
  2. Incomplete dominance (RR x WW):
     • Phenotype: RW (pink flowers)
  3. Sex-linked recessive (XHXh x XHY):
     • Son's chance of having hemophilia: 50%
  4. Pedigree Analysis:
     • Identify carriers, affected, and unaffected individuals based on the inheritance pattern.
  5. Blood Type:
     • Parents: Type A (IAi), Type B (IBi)
     • Children: Type A (IAi or IAIA), Type B (IBi or IBIB), Type AB (IAIB), Type O (ii)
  6. Dihybrid Cross:
     • LlPp x llpp:
       • $L = Long tails, l = Short tails, P = Bright plumage, p = Dull plumage$
       • Punnett square reveals possible phenotypes.
       • Percentage of offspring with long tails and bright plumage analyzed from Punnett Square.
  7. Dihybrid Cross:
     • FFBb x FfBb:
       • $F = Floppy ears, f = Straight ears, B = Brown fur, b = White fur$
       • Phenotypic ratios analyzed from the Punnett square.
       • Percentage of offspring with floppy ears and white fur calculated.
  8. DNA to Amino Acid:
     • Given DNA: ATG-CGT-TAC-CCC-GGA-TTA
     • Complementary DNA: TAC-GCA-ATG-GGG-CCT-AAT
     • mRNA: AUG-CGU-UAC-CCC-GGA-UUA
     • Amino acids: Met-Arg-Tyr-Pro-Gly-Leu
  9. mRNA Codon to Amino Acid:
     • AUG: Methionine
     • UUU: Phenylalanine
     • GGC: Glycine
     • UGA: Stop
  10. DNA Replication Diagram:
      • Label DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, and complementary base pairing.
      • DNA sequence example provided (TAC GCG GTA).

Unit 6 - The History of Life and Evolution

• Vocabulary:
  • Fossil, adaptation, natural selection, evolution, homologous structure, vestigial structure, speciation, extinction, common ancestor, radiometric dating, relative dating, K-T boundary, plate tectonics, law of superposition
• Key Concepts:
  • Evidence Supporting Evolution:
    • Fossils
    • Homologous structures
    • Vestigial structures
    • Embryological development
    • Molecular biology
  • Law of Superposition:
    • In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest layers are at the bottom.
  • Fossil Formation:
    • Occurs when organisms are buried in sediment.
  • Dating Fossils:
    • Relative dating
    • Radiometric dating
  • Geologic Eras:
    • Precambrian: Early Earth formation
    • Paleozoic: Appearance of diverse marine life
    • Mesozoic: Age of reptiles
    • Cenozoic: Age of mammals
  • Geologic Time Scale:
    • Eons, eras, periods, and epochs
  • Origin of Life:
    • Primordial Soup Theory: Life arose from simple organic molecules in the early Earth's oceans.
    • Experiments: Miller-Urey experiment
  • Endosymbiont Theory:
    • Mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living prokaryotes.
  • Earth's Atmosphere:
    • Changed from reducing to oxidizing over time.
  • Cambrian Explosion:
    • Sudden appearance of diverse animal phyla in the fossil record.
  • Major Life Forms:
    • Paleozoic: Fish, amphibians, reptiles
    • Mesozoic: Dinosaurs
    • Cenozoic: Mammals, birds
  • Natural Selection:
    • Process by which individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
    • Leads to evolution.
  • Adaptation:
    • Increases an organism's fitness (survival and reproduction).
  • Homologous, Analogous, Vestigial Structures:
    • Homologous: Common ancestry.
    • Analogous: Convergent evolution.
    • Vestigial: Reduced or non-functional structures.
  • Mass Extinctions:
    • Play a role in shaping biodiversity by eliminating certain species and allowing others to diversify.
  • Embryological Development and Molecular Biology:
    • Support the theory of evolution through shared developmental pathways and genetic similarities.
  • Mimicry vs. Camouflage:
    • Mimicry: Copying the appearance of another species.
    • Camouflage: Blending in with the environment.
  • Skeletal Adaptations for Bipedalism:
    • Changes in pelvis, spine, and limbs.
  • Hominids vs. Other Primates:
    • Bipedalism, larger brain size.
  • Fossil Evidence for Human Evolution:
    • Fossils of Australopithecus, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens.
  • Human Ancestors :
    • Australopithecus
    • Homo habilis
    • Homo erectus
    • Homo neanderthalensis
    • Homo sapiens
• Natural Selection Scenarios:
  1. Peppered Moths:
     • Cause: Industrial pollution.
     • Higher Fitness: Dark-colored moths.
     • Decreased pollution: Light-colored moths would increase.
  2. Lizard Tail Loss:
     • Increases survival and reproduction by allowing escape from predators.
     • Future generations: More lizards with easily broken tails.
  3. Arctic Hare Adaptations:
     • Thick fur and white coats.
     • Help hares survive in their environment by providing insulation and camouflage.
     • Warmer environment: Hares might struggle to regulate body temperature, white coats might be less effective for concealment.
  4. Mimicry vs. Camouflage Sorting:
     • Viceroy butterfly: Mimicry
     • Flounder: Camouflage
     • Caterpillar eyespots: Mimicry
  5. Natural Selection in Action (Beetles):
     • Frequency: Brown beetles will likely increase; green beetles will decrease.
     • Term: Natural selection/evolution.

Unit 7: Classifying Life's Diversity

• Vocabulary:
  • Taxonomy, classification, domain, kingdom, binomial nomenclature, cladogram, dichotomous key, vascular, nonvascular, gymnosperm, angiosperm, vertebrate, invertebrate.
• Key Concepts:
  • 8 Levels of Biological Classification (Most General to Most Specific):
    • Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
  • Binomial Nomenclature:
    • Two-part naming system (Genus species), e.g., Homo sapiens
    • Useful for providing a unique and universally recognized name for each species.
  • Three Domains of Life:
    • Archaea: Prokaryotic, often extremophiles
    • Bacteria: Prokaryotic, diverse metabolic capabilities
    • Eukarya: Eukaryotic, includes protists, fungi, plants, and animals
  • Six Kingdoms of Life:
    • Archaebacteria (Archaea): Prokaryotic, extremophiles
    • Eubacteria (Bacteria): Prokaryotic, diverse metabolic capabilities
    • Protista: Eukaryotic, diverse, mostly unicellular
    • Fungi: Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, chitin cell walls
    • Plantae: Eukaryotic, autotrophic, cellulose cell walls
    • Animalia: Eukaryotic, heterotrophic, no cell walls
  • Plant Classification:
    • Nonvascular (mosses)
    • Vascular (ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms)
  • Major Animal Phyla:
    • Porifera (sponges)
    • Cnidaria (jellyfish)
    • Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
    • Nematoda (roundworms)
    • Annelida (segmented worms)
    • Mollusca (snails, clams)
    • Arthropoda (insects, spiders)
    • Echinodermata (starfish)
    • Chordata (vertebrates)
  • Cladogram Interpretation:
    • Diagram showing evolutionary relationships among organisms based on shared derived characters.
  • Shared Characteristics of Plants:
    • Eukaryotic, multicellular, autotrophic, cell walls made of cellulose
  • Vascular vs. Nonvascular Plants:
    • Vascular: Have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) for transport of water and nutrients.
    • Nonvascular: Lack vascular tissue; rely on diffusion.
  • Gymnosperms vs. Angiosperms:
    • Gymnosperms: Naked seeds (e.g., pine cones).
    • Angiosperms: Flowering plants with seeds enclosed in fruits.
  • Parts of a Flower and Seed:
    • Flower: Sepals, petals, stamens (anther and filament), pistil (stigma, style, ovary)
    • Seed: Embryo, endosperm, seed coat.
  • Seed Dispersal:
    • Wind, water, animals
  • Vegetative Reproduction:
    • Asexual reproduction from stems, roots, or leaves.
    • Advantage: Rapid reproduction
    • Disadvantage: Lack of genetic variation
  • Monocots vs. Dicots:
    • Monocots: One cotyledon, parallel leaf veins, scattered vascular bundles
    • Dicots: Two cotyledons, netlike leaf veins, vascular bundles in a ring
  • Shared Characteristics of Animals:
    • Eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, no cell walls
  • Invertebrates vs. Vertebrates:
    • Invertebrates: Lack a backbone.
    • Vertebrates: Have a backbone.
  • Major Invertebrate Phyla and Traits:
    • Porifera (sponges): Lack true tissues
    • Cnidaria (jellyfish): Radial symmetry, stinging cells
    • Platyhelminthes (flatworms): Bilateral symmetry, no body cavity
    • Nematoda (roundworms): Pseudocoelom
    • Annelida (segmented worms): Segmented body
    • Mollusca (snails, clams): Soft body, often a shell
    • Arthropoda (insects, spiders): Exoskeleton, jointed appendages
    • Echinodermata (starfish): Radial symmetry, water vascular system
  • Main Vertebrate Groups and Distinguishing Features:
    • Fish: Aquatic, gills
    • Amphibians: Live in water and on land, metamorphosis
    • Reptiles: Scales, amniotic eggs
    • Birds: Feathers, wings
    • Mammals: Hair, mammary glands
• Practice Problems:
  1. Cladogram Construction: Derived traits added to cladogram.
  2. Cladogram Examination:
     • Identification of most closely related species.
     • Identification of shared traits among organisms.