Political, Social, and Economic Processes in Ethiopia: Mid-16th to Mid-19th Century Study Notes

Peoples and States of Southern, Western, and Eastern Ethiopia

• The Omotic Peoples: Primarily located along the Omo Basin in Ethiopia.

• Linguistic Identity: The Omotic language family belongs to the Afro-Asiatic super-language family and is uniquely spoken only within Ethiopia.

• Economic Systems: Highly dependent on sedentary agriculture, characterized specifically by the large-scale cultivation of enset (false banana). Other activities include pastoralism and handicrafts.

• Political Evolution: A distinct feature of these peoples is the evolution of advanced, highly organized political entities or polities.

The Kingdom of Yem

• Geographic Location: Situated between the Gibe and Omo Rivers, located northeast of the Kingdom of Kafa.

• Historical Documentation: First referenced in the soldiers’ song of King Yesihak (r. $1412-1430$) of the Christian Highland Kingdom (CHK), to whom Yem paid tributes in horses. The first European account was by Jesuit Antonio Fernandez in $1614$.

• Dynasties: The first kings belonged to the Halman Gama dynasty; by the $14^{th}$ century, the Mowa (or Howa) dynasty was in power.

• Political Center: The capital was located at Angar Fochara.

• Administrative Titles and Hierarchy:

  • Amno: The title for the king, possessing both political and religious authority.

  • Astesor: The council of officials serving beneath the king.

  • Waso: The title used for officials within the astesor.

  • Arasho/Rasho: Titles for provincial officials.

  • Gagna: Rulers overseeing sub-provinces.

• Economic Structure: Primarily based on agriculture, trade, and crafts. Direct taxes were paid to the king.

  • Diet: Enset was the staple food; barley and sorghum were the primary cereals.

  • Industry: Weaving and ironwork (handicrafts) existed as secondary economic activities.

• Annexation: Emperor Menelik II gained control of Yem in $1894$.

The Kingdom of Kafa

• Location: South of the Gojeb River; the inhabitants refer to themselves as Kaffecho.

• Dynastic History:

  • Matto Dynasty: Ruled until $1390$.

  • Minjo Dynasty: From the Bushasho family, ruled from $1390$ to $1897$.

• Political Structure: The king held absolute power but was assisted by the Mikerecho (a council of advisors). The administration was organized into provinces.

• Capitals: Historically Bonga, and later AndirAcha.

• Defensive Features: Known for a system of deep trenches. A notable defense ditch is called Hiriyoo.

• Revenue and Economy: Economy was rooted in agriculture and trade. Markets existed at the kingdom's gates for custom dues.

  • Taxation: Paid in kind (cattle, musk). Tax collectors were known as Tate Kisho ("the hands of the king").

  • Trade Commodities: Coffee, musk, gold, ivory, and slaves.

• Succession of Kings ($1821-1897$):

  1. Gahe Nechochi (r. $1821-1841$)

  2. Gawi Nechochi (r. $1841-1843$)

  3. Kaye Sharochi (r. $1843-1868$)

  4. Gali Sharochi (Galito) (r. $1868-1890$)

  5. Gaki Sharocho (r. $1890-1897$) - The last king of Kaffa.

• End of Independence: Kafa resisted Oromo expansion in the $17^{th}$ and $18^{th}$ centuries. It was finally controlled by Menelik II in $1897$, who appointed Ras W/Giorgis as governor.

The Kingdom of Shekka

• Location: East of the Baro River and West of the Gojeb River/Kingdom of Kafa.

• Dynastics and Origins: The Batto dynasty ruled until the $16^{th}$ century. The subsequent Bushasho dynasty migrated from Anfilo and ruled until the late $19^{th}$ century.

• Governance: The king used the title Tato and adopted crown names. The territory was divided into six provinces, with governors serving as councilors.

• Religion: Christianity was introduced in the late $16^{th}$ century by King Sertse Dingil (r. $1563-1597$).

• Political Center: Gecha in Anderacha served as the capital.

• 19th Century Monarchs:

  • Bedi Nechochi (r. $1800-1805$)

  • Techi Nechochi (r. $1805-1820$)

  • Geli Gawochi (r. $1820-1850$)

  • Deji Gawochi (r. $1850-1887$)

  • Techi Gawochi (r. $1887-1898$)

The Kingdom of Wolaita

• Historical Origins: Located south of the Sultanate of Hadya with strong ties to the medieval Kingdom of Damot.

• Dynasties:

  • Wolaita Malla Dynasty: Founded by Motalami ($14^{th}$ century).

  • Tigre Dynasty: Replaced the Malla dynasty in the $15^{th}$ century, expanding influence over Gamo, Kucha, Boroda, and Dawuro.

• Defensive Structures: Dry-stone border walls known as the Ijajo Kalla (Wall of Ijajo).

• Governance and Title: The king was known as Kawo, possessing absolute power. A warrior class existed called the Goqa.

• Capital: Moved from Didaye hill (Koysha Lasho) to Damota hill near Wolaita Sodo.

• Economy: Agriculture was the primary baseline; all land was considered property of the Kawo. Trade and handicrafts were auxiliary.

• Key Transitions: Became a tributary of the CHK under Amde Tsiyon ($1314-1344$). Successfully resisted Imam Ahmad and the Oromo movements. Incorporated into Ethiopia in $1894$ after the defeat of the last king, Kawo Tona Gaga.

The Kingdom of Dawuro

• Location: Northeastern and Southern Gojeb/Omo rivers, highland Kafa to the west.

• Politics: In $1700$, the Kawuka dynasty unified petty chieftains. The kings used the title Kati.

• Famous Rulers: Kati Irashu and Kati Halala. Halala was said to be the grandson of the King of Kafa and incorporated Konta into the state.

• Infrastructure: Defensive dry-stone walls known as Kati Halala Kalla, erected in the second half of the $18^{th}$ century.

The Gamo and Gofa Kingdoms

• Gamo:

  • Name means "lion." Inhabited the region between Lake Chamo, Lake Abaya, and the Gughe Mountain.

  • Darie: Local village units that were politically independent, each under its own Kawo.

  • Governance: Assemblies discussed communal issues; membership was based on election and genealogical seniority.

• Gofa:

  • Located between the Omo River, Dawuro, and Gamo.

  • Dual Administration: Consisted of a Kawo/Kati (landed chief) in the highlands and an Ira-kati (rain king) in the lowlands.

  • Legal System: A complex customary system called Woga. The royal court was at Lote.

  • Currency: Iron bars served as local currency.

  • End of Independence: The last king, Kawo Kamma, died in $1891$ fighting against the imperial army.

Cushitic States and the Sera-Woma System

• Peoples: Includes the Sidama, Hadya, Kambata, Tambaro, Halaba, and Qabena.

• Sera-Woma System: Indigenous governance and dispute resolution institutions.

• Sidama:

  • Woma: Cultural/ritual leadership at the village level.

  • Sera: Customary law/social constitution.

  • Luwa Institution: An age-grade system with five rotating grades: Wawassa, Darara, Mogissa, Hirbora, and Fullassa. Membership is based on birth and follows a father-son sequence.

  • Officials: Gadanna (leader) and Jalawa (assistant) served eight-year terms. Elders with authority were called Chimesa.

• Kambata:

  • Sera: Regulated relations between individuals and clans.

  • Hambarcho: A seven-member council representing the seven clans of the Kambata, handling administrative and judicial duties.

• Gedeo:

  • Ballee System: Indigenous administrative system with seven grades across a $70$-year cycle ($10$ years per grade). Led by the Abba Gadaa.

• Konso:

  • Hayyota: Rotating, non-hereditary council of elders in each village.

  • Tsella: Generation set system. Known for advanced soil conservation (terracing), stonework, and wooden carvings.

The Gurage and Silt`e

• Gurage:

  • Composed of the Sabat Bet (Western) and Kestane (Northern) groups.

  • Legal Institutions: Yajoka Qicha (Sabat Bet) and Gordanna Sera (Kestane). These assemblies served as legislative bodies and supreme courts.

• Silt`e:

  • Part of the South-Ethio Semitic language family.

  • Legal System: Ye Silt`e Sera or Malga Sera.

The Gibe Monarchies

• Context: Formed in the Gibe Valley and Wallaga following the Macha Oromo migration in the $16^{th}$ and $17^{th}$ centuries. Shifted from the Gadaa system to monarchies by $1800$.

• Causes of Change: Revival of long-distance trade, spread of Islam, and the rise of powerful Abbaa Duulaa (war leaders) who became Mootii (kings) using wealth from tribute and taxation.

• The Five Monarchies:

  1. Limmu-Enarya: Earliest Gibe state ($1800$), founded by Bofo (Abba Gomol I, r. $1800-1825$). Capital: Saqqa. Reached peak under Ibsa (Abba Bagibo, r. $1825-1861$).

  2. Gumma: State formation completed around $1810$ by Oncho Jilcha (r. $1810-1830$).

  3. Gomma: Formation completed by Abba Manno (r. $1820-1840$). Earliest state to be Islamized in the $1830s$.

  4. Jimma-Kakka: Established $1830$ by Sanna (Abba Jiffar I, r. $1830-1855$). Capital: Hirmata. Strongest rival of Limmu-Enarya.

  5. Gera: Founded around the mid-$1830s$ by Tullu Gunji.

The Leeqaa States, Benishangul, and Gambella

• Leeqaa States:

  • Leeqaa Naqamtee: Unified by Bakaree Godana at Wacha. Successor Moroda Bakaree (r. $1868-1889$) and Kumsa Moroda ($1889$).

  • Leeqaa Qellam: Unified by Tulluu; notable for gold trade. Consolidated by Dejjazmach Jootee Tulluu.

• Benishangul-Gumuz: Three Muslim Sheikhdoms established in the $19^{th}$ century: Assossa (Aqoldi), Benishangul, and Khomosha. Another sheikhdom, Gubba, emerged in Metekkel. Driven by Islam and gold trade.

• Gambella Peoples: Home to Nuer, Anywaa, Majang, Opuo, and Komo.

  • Anywaa: Ruled by Kwaari (village headman) and Nyiye (noble).

  • Nuer: Ruled by spiritual leaders: Khor Muon (peacemaking), Khor Touch (water), and Khor Tang (war).

Eastern States: Harar, Afar, and Somali

• Harar:

  • Jugol Wall: Built by Emir Mujahid ($1552-1553$) to protect from Oromo advancement. UNESCO registered in $2006$.

  • Emirate: Independence marked by Emir Ali Dawud. Prosperous trade center that minted its own coins by the $17^{th}$ century.

  • Culture: Center of Islamic learning. Afocha (self-help associations): Aboch (male) and Endoch (female).

  • External relations: Richard Burton visited in $1855$. Egyptian occupation ($1875-1885$).

• Afar:

  • Four Sultanates: Tajura, Rahayito, Aussa, and Goba’ad. The Imamate of Aussa held primacy.

  • Makabonto: Indigenous court system involving $1-10$ judges.

• Somali:

  • Inhabited the Ogaden. Divided into clans (Darod, Isaaq, etc.).

  • Shir: Indigenous council of elders for deciding criminal and civil cases.

The Christian Highland Kingdom (CHK) and Gondar

• Political Instability: Following the wars of Imam Ahmad, the center shifted toward Lake Tana. Factors included the Turkish occupation of Massawa ($1557$) and internal succession rivalries.

• The Gondarine Period ($1636-1769$): Founded by Fasiledes. Known for castles, cultural revival, music, and painting.

  • Economy: High trade activity conducted by Jeberti (Muslims) and Falashas (Bete-Israel artisans).

  • Layout: Outskirts quarter for non-Christians called Addis Alem.

• Decline of Gondar: Loss of regional control and the distance from the center.

• Notable Gondarine Kings:

  • Fasiladas: Built the palace complex and permanent capital.

  • Iyasu I (The Great): Campaigning to regain former provinces, revised the Fitha Negest, and amended land laws.

  • Mintiwab and Quaregnoch: Etege Mintiwab ruled as regent for Iyasu II and Iyo’as, using Qwaran supporters.

The Catholic Influence and Closed-Door Policy

• Jesuit Missions: Led by Pedro Pa`ez and Alfonso Mendez to convert Ethiopia.

• Susinyos: Converted in $1622$ to gain Portuguese military aid. Condemned Orthodox practices (Sabbath, circumcision), leading to mass peasant rebellions.

• Termination: Susinyos abdicated in $1632$. Fasiledes restored Orthodoxy, expelled Jesuits, and implemented the Closed-Door Policy for nearly $200$ years.

Zemene Mesafint (Era of Warlords, $1769-1855$)

• Definition: A period of political disintegration where regional warlords held power over puppet kings.

• Characteristics: Intense struggle for the title of Ras Bitweded (king-maker).

• Yejju Dynasty (Werre Sheh): Monopolized the Ras Bitweded position since $1786$. Famous members include Ras Gugsa and Ras Ali II (Ali Alula).

• Impact: Widespread poverty, plundering by regional armies, and religious doctrinal disputes within the Church.

• Termination: Kassa Hailu defeated his rivals (Battle of Ayshal, $1853$; Battle of Deresge, $1855$) and was crowned Emperor Tewodros II.

The Kingdom of Shewa

• Founder: Negasi Kirstos ($1700$). Capital moved from Ayne to Doqaqit to Ankober.

• Independence: Exempt from the civil wars of the Zemene Mesafint.

• Sahle Selassie: First to use the title Nigus. Signed treaties with the British (Harris) and French (Rochet d’Hericourt) in the $1840s$.

Questions & Discussion

• Q: What happened when the centers of the Christian Kingdom moved?

• A: The center moved to Lake Tana during the reign of King Minas, eventually culminating in the permanent capital of Gondar in $1636$.

• Q: How did the Zemene Mesafint affect the common people?

• A: It led to the impoverishment of the peasantry as their produce was plundered, farms became battlefields, and many turned to banditry (shifta).

• Q: Who was the last powerful king before the Zemene Mesafint?

• A: Iyasu I (the Great), after whose death in $1706$ political order eroded significantly.