"Gang formation has been a consistent element in juvenile reactions to urban life and gangs have also been found to exist in suburban and rural areas. Currently, youth gangs pose a serious threat in urban areas and rural gang membership is on the increase. Although gang members still come predominantly from the 'underclass' and lower and working classes, certain types of gangs have strong appeal for middle-class youths" (pp. 119-120).

"There are certain factors that make contemporary gangs more threatening to the common good than gangs of the past. The use of firearms by gang members has greatly increased, and there has been a sharp increase in the levels of gang violence…gang activity now frequently involves random attacks against persons or places that have little or no connection to the gang itself, and gang-related drive-by shootings carried out without concern for innocent bystanders have become everyday occurrences in major cities" (p. 120). 

'Definitions of Gangs and  Scope of The Problem'

There are various definitions. Chicago Police Department definition:

An association of individuals who exhibit the following characteristics in varying degrees: a gang name and recognizable symbols; a geographic territory; a regular meeting pattern; an organized, continuous course of criminality. "There is some type of organizational structure and leadership…[and] some type of insignia or 'colors' to identify gang members" (p. 121).

"From the perspective of gang members, the name and 'colors' of the group may be the most significant characteristic" (p. 121).

'Number of Youth Gangs and Youth Gang Membership'

The National Youth Gangs and Gang Center [obtains] information from police and sheriff's departments. The 2012 survey estimated 30,000 gangs with 850,000 members in the USA. This was…a 15% increase in the number of gangs since 2006…The larger cities and suburban counties accounted for more than 80% of the 850,000 members [large cities were 41.6%]" (p. 122).

'The History of Gang Development'

"The existence of gangs in New York City and Boston in the early 19th century [have been well-documented]…In the Bowery section of New York, where gang membership was principally Irish, battles between rival gangs sometimes raged for two or three days, streets were barricaded, and both hand-to-hand combat and gun battles took place" (p. 122).

"Of particular interest in the accounts of early gang battles is the presence of girls. In the early eras, the girls carried the weapons and reserve ammunition, a service that…became an ascribed activity of girl members and persists today. However, some of the girls also took part in the fighting…" (p. 122).

Gang activity in the 1960s was somewhat overshadowed by "…youth protest and rebellion…some crime analysts took the position that the wide use of drugs by gang members had weakened gang cohesion and diminished members' fighting spirit. Others felt that involvement in policy in policy protests and social programs did in fact lead to a decline in gang activity" (p. 124). One analyst (Miller, 1975) "…contended that gang activity did not decrease significantly during the 1960s but simply received less public attention because of the overwhelming social problems facing the nation" (p. 124).

'Gang Behavior in The 1970s'

"Whether gang activity increased in the 1970s or merely captured renewed public interest is a matter open to debate. The gangs of the 1970s, however, had distinctive characteristics that set them apart from their predecessors of earlier decades. A study of street gangs operating in New York City in the period 1971-1976 revealed that this 'new' gang had 'bigger and better organizations, more sophisticated weapons, and a greater propensity for violence than its ancestor, the 'fighting gang' of the 1960s' " [p. 124].

In a study of 1970s gangs in 12 major U.S. cities, Miller found youth gangs' ages ranged from 12 to about 21 "…with the largest concentration in the 16-17 year old age group" [p. 125], and that they were predominantly male (90% to 10%) and 80% of gang members were Black or Hispanic.

"The primary locus of serious gang activity was found to be in the slum areas of cities. These areas were not necessarily concentrated in the central city, however; they were found to exist also in formerly middle-class and working class neighborhoods that had deteriorated" [p. 125].

Gang violence was identified [by Miller] in four forms:

Normal gang violence (attacks where both assailants and victims are gang members;

Victimization of non-gang members with social characteristics similar to those of gang members;

Crimes against the general public; and

Victimization of young children, the elderly, females, or those who are not community members.

"An increased tendency of gang members to victimize innocent children and adults appeared to be an important aspect of gang behavior in the 1970s that was different from the behavior of gangs of earlier eras. Non-gang members (teenagers, children, adults) were the victims of nearly 40% of gang activity" (Miller, 1975) [p. 125].

"miller concluded that by 1980 there were more gang members in the U.S. than at any time in the past and that gangs were active in more cities than at any earlier time. He also found that in the 1970's more people were the victims of gang-related killings than at any previous ten-year period" [p. 125].

'Gang Behavior in the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s'

In these decades "…the trend toward increased violence and use of more sophisticated weapons by certain types of gangs continued" [p. 125].

"A study of gang activity in seven large Ohio cities identified three typologies:

Informal, hedonistic gangs - concerned with having a good time and getting high on drugs and alcohol;

Instrumentally-oriented gangs - focused on property crimes for economic gain;

Predatory gangs - commit robberies and other crimes of opportunity, members' use of highly addictive drugs contributes to their violent behavior.

Although gangs in large cities have been found to be largely Black or Hispanic "…other distinct types have also emerged. These include gangs of Asians (Vietnamese, Chinese) involved in crimes  against property, extortion for protection, and kidnapping, with members of their own ethnic groups usually the targets of their activity. Other new gang variations are the heavy metal, punk rockers, and Satanic groups. Their members are predominantly white youths devoted to heavy metal rock music and behavior chosen for its shock value. Their gang activities have included drug trafficking, parent abuse, grave robbing, and desecration of human and animal remains" [p. 126].

Some gangs are linked to organized crime.

"Homicides committed by gang members…are more likely than non-gang homicides to take place in public areas…" [p. 126].

"Since 2000, gang-related homicides…have increased sharply in…large cities…Drug involvement and trafficking have been identified as factors in the violence of gangs, but researchers differ [about] the strength of the connection…[some] have concluded that gang violence is more closely related to…intergang interpersonal conflict than to 'drug wars' " [p. 126].

"The sites  of gang warfare appear to have shifted in some instances to schools. With the consolidation of middle schools and high schools, members of gangs from diverse areas of large cities are thrown together in a common school location, where they victimize other students and teachers and challenge each other for control" [p. 127].

'Theories of Gang Formation'

Thrasher's theory of gang development:

Thrasher, considered "…the pioneer of gang-formation research…contended that gangs develop from spontaneous play groups, when threats from youthful enemies lead them to protect their territory through mutual support. Groups that evolve into gangs develop a formalized structure, complete with defined leadership status, division of labor, distinctive styles of dress, and well-defined goals. Threats from others were found to be a unifying force. Thrasher identified marriage as the most potent cause of attrition from gangs" [p. 128].

Thrasher "…characterized gangs as either diffuse or solidified. Diffuse gangs are loosely organized; those that are solidified have developed a strong internal structure and esprit de corps. Solidified gangs were identified as being 'conventional', 'criminal', or 'secret societies'" [p. 128].

'Some Research Findings on Youth Gangs'

Lewis noted that 'organized' gangs "…have structures, rules, defined goals, and distinctive concerns, [and] behave as they do to pursue very definite purposes and goals" [p. 135].

"The major goal of the organized juvenile gang is to maintain sovereignty or control over its turf. To this end, rules and norms must be developed, and a division of labor takes place. Those who live within the boundaries of the [gang's] territory [who] fall within an age category established by the gang are candidates for gang membership…or subject to the power of the gang. Organized gangs, according to Lewis, normally do not try to subject all residents of the turf but concentrate on gaining the respect and fear of members of their peer group…Thus the organized gang is in effect a miniature society establishing its own rules, regulations and value system, which apply only to its own members and serve the gang's needs" [p. 135].

'Development of The Gang'

"Various levels of involvement in gang activity have been identified. Yablonsky presented evidence that the average gang is composed of a number of 'hardcore' members (10-15% of the gang) who lead, plan, and manage the day-to-day activities of the gang, and a much larger group of marginal members who are their followers" (p. 140).

"The primary appeal of social or violent gangs is status enhancement. Social gangs offer opportunities for developing a sense of belonging to youhs who may never have experienced such a feeling in their family or school situations…" (p. 140).

"Self-preservation is a strong motive in violent gang membership. The gang members protect each other from being victimized by other gangs and authority figures. Gang solidarity and a sense of security are enhanced…by the amassing of a large collection of weapons…Many of the gang members carry guns with them as part of their daily routine and even try to bring them into the schools" (p. 141).