AP HUG Unit 2
APHG Unit 2 Study Guide 🫂
Lesson 2.3.1
Population Growth Trends Throughout History: Growth has been “recent” and current growth is mostly in lower developed countries.
Concentration: Where things are compared to another, so within the same area.
Clustered Vs. Dispersed: The more clustered areas of Earth are the ones that are more densely populated. While areas that are more dispersed are more spread out.
Two-thirds of that population can be found in four regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Western Europe.
Types of Patterns
Uniform: The pattern is spread out evenly over an area.
Clustered: Clustered populations are grouped or clumped together around a central point.
Linear: Linear patterns describe a population that appears to form long and narrow lines.
Dispersed: Is a population that is spread out
Random: Are patterns describe populations that are distributed without apparent order or logic.
Environmental Factors of Population
Climate: Refers to the long-term patterns of weather in an area that greatly affect population distribution in direct and indirect ways.
Climate helps shape the soil, vegetation, and agricultural opportunities of an environment.
EX: A temperate climate is more likely to have a more clustered or dense population because of its temperatures and precipitation.
Landforms: Are the natural features of Earth’s surface that influence population distribution.
EX: People prefer lowlands due to the ease of building, planting, and transporting goods. These areas also have water sources, relatively flat terrain, and the potential to produce food.
Water Accessibility: Ready access to fresh, ample water is essential for human survival and development and thus is a key factor in population distribution.
Water is needed not only for agriculture but also for industrial use, sanitation, and hygiene.
EX: Within China, much of the population is concentrated in the eastern half of the country along the Huang He and Yangtze river valleys. These are economic centers because of the river and its branches, which allowed for transport and trade.
Human Factors of Population
Economic: People tend to live where they can earn a living through agriculture, natural resource extraction, manufacturing, sales, and a variety of other activities.
EX: The forced migration of millions of enslaved people to the Americas to support a developing colonial economy.
Political: People who are dissatisfied with their government or political system may voluntarily migrate to another country or region within the same country.
EX: In Cambodia in 1975, leaders of the Khmer Rouge forced more than 2 million residents in the capital city of Phnom Penh to migrate to the rural countryside.
Cultural: Housing availability, safety, access to transportation, and a feeling of belonging and community are cultural factors that may serve as initial reasons to live in a certain place.
EX: Some societies have a strong preference for sons, which affects population composition.
Historical: History, the significant events that took place in the past, is often intertwined with other physical, environmental, and human factors.
EX: Humans began migrating out of Africa at least 60,000 years ago. By the end of the Pleistocene around 11,700 years ago, climate changes promoted milder conditions in more areas, resulting in major population movements and shaping the settlement patterns of humankind.
The population distribution of the past can influence the population of the present.
Density: The number of people occupying a unit of land.
Arithmetic/Crude: Measures the total number of people per unit area of land. Provides an average density with no information about distribution patterns, such as how dispersed or clustered a population is on the land.
EX: Although Taiwan has one of the highest population densities in the world, about 75 percent of its people live on just one-third of its land area.
Physiological: The total number of people per unit of arable land , which is land that can be used to grow crops. This provides insight into whether people can sustain themselves agriculturally. The higher the physiological density, the greater the pressure on the land and its resources.
EX: The total land area of the United Arab Emirates was about 32,278 square miles, but only 0.5 percent of that land was arable. Which means not much land is suitable for farming.
Agricultural: Measures the total number of farmers per unit of arable land. This can reveal more about a country’s wealth than its population distribution. High numbers of farmers per land unit, suggests that most of the farming taking place is providing crops and livestock for only the farmers
EX: A lower agricultural density, like that of the United States, is typically a result of high levels of mechanization
Lesson 2.3.2
Ecumene: Portion of earth occupied by permanent settlement.
If population density increases services like fire departments on the maps increase. The space of land to use decreases because of the amount of infrastructure needed. More population can cause a strain on natural resources.
If population density decreases there will be more space and less strain on resources and people.
Carrying Capacity: The maximum population size an environment can sustain is represented by the threshold at which the population of a species levels off at an environmentally determined maximum because of a shortage of resources.
EX: The huge island of Greenland has an exceptionally low carrying capacity because of its harsh, cold climate.
Lesson 2.3.3
Dependency Ratio: The number of people in a dependent age group (under age 15 or age 65 and older) divided by the number of people in the working-age group (ages 15 to 64), multiplied by 100.
EX: Consider a population of 100 people that has 60 people in the working-age range. This population also has 30 children and 10 people age 65 or older. In this example, the dependency ratio would be 66.7. This ratio indicates that two-thirds of the population is in the working-age range.
The higher the dependency ratio, the more people who are not of working age, and the fewer who are in the workforce, earning income, and often paying taxes. This means that in a country with a high dependency ratio, people of working age—and the overall economy—encounter greater pressures in supporting the aging and youthful population groups.
Sex Ratio: This ratio represents the proportion of males to females in a population.
EX: China’s one-child policy that launched in 1979 and remained in effect for over 30 years has had lasting effects on the country’s population structure. Under this policy, Chinese couples were allowed to have only one child, so they often sex-selected their first pregnancy because in their culture males were better. This leads to an imbalance in the sex ratio and not enough females to do female jobs.
The sex ratio is an important social indicator as it affects marriage rates, women’s labor-market participation rates, and the socialization of men and women within their cultural norms. It also impacts fertility rates, birth rates, and the natural rate at which a population grows.
Lesson 2.3.4
Crude Birth Rate (CBR): The number of births in a given year per 1,000 people in a given population.
EX: If a country or region has a population of 1 million, and 15,000 babies were born in that country last year, both numbers are divided by 1,000 to obtain the rate of 15 per 1,000. This means that 15 babies are born every year for every 1,000 people in that country or region.
Crude Death Rate (CDR): The number of deaths of a given population per year per 1,000 people.
Geographers consider CDRs of below 10 per 1,000 people as low and CDRs of higher than 20 per 1,000 as high.
A high CDR may result from a multitude of unhealthy conditions (unclean water, a poor diet, or poor quality housing) that lead to poor health. However, it can also result from a high number of natural deaths occurring within the oldest portion of the population.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): The average number of children one woman in a given country or region will have during her child-bearing years, which are ages 15 to 49.
TFR is a better comparison of fertility levels across countries and populations than CBR measurements.
A TFR above 2.1 means the population is growing, while below 2.1 is a decreasing population. 2.1 is the replacement rate.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): The number of deaths of children under the age of 1 per 1,000 live births.
Infant mortality is high when medicine and maternal care are limited, and lower when access to clean water, sanitation, and public health is inadequate.
Life Expectancy: The average number of years a person is expected to live.
Core Countries ≈ 80 years
Periphery Countries ≈ 50 years
Population Pyramids: These graphs show the age-sex distribution of a given population, which helps indicate whether the population is growing rapidly, growing slowly, or in decline.
Rectangular Shape: Stable population
Wide Base: Rapid Growth
Narrow Base: Declining Population; could be because of a high rate of natural deaths of old age.
Lesson 2.4.1
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): The difference between the crude birth rate (CBR) and crude death rate (CDR) of a defined group of people.
Doubling Time: The number of years in which a population growing at a certain rate will double.
Formula: 70/RNI = DT
EX: The 2019 RNI for the United States was 0.3 percent, so, 70/0.3=233.3. This gives us a doubling time of 233.3 years
Factors That Influence Population Change:
ECONOMIC: Birth rates tend to decline in times of economic hardship, particularly if people are concerned about having sufficient food and resources to support their children. Conversely, birth rates often rise during more prosperous times, when people are feeling optimistic about their future.
Types of economic activity also influence families’ decisions about childbearing, and thus fertility rates. Families tend to be larger in agriculturally-based economies, where children are considered essential for labor. In industrial and post-industrial economies, on the other hand, children may be viewed as an economic burden, leading to a lower crude birth rate.
POLITICAL: Some governments, concerned about population growth, aim to dissuade families from having too many children by offering incentives or disincentives—measures intended to discourage a certain behavior.
EX: China’s One Child Policy permitted only one child per couple. China’s total fertility rate, birth rate, and rate of natural increase all dropped during the years the law was in force.
EX: Singapore, for instance, offers tax breaks and extended maternity leave. This was because they had a declining population and wanted to encourage people to have babies.
War contributes by having a higher mortality rate as the result of combat-related deaths and inevitable civilian casualties, war often results in food shortages or mass migration away from the conflict.
EX: 5.7 million people had fled Syria’s civil war to become registered refugees in neighboring countries. So, war caused migration.
ENVIRONMENTAL: Natural disasters are just one environmental factor that can radically affect a region’s population.
EX: Around: between 1 million and 4 million people lost their lives in floods in China in 1931.
Famine and the spread of deadly disease can have a similar impact.
EX: In the 1300s, the world population had a dip as a result of the bubonic plague, which swept through much of Europe and Asia. According to some estimates, perhaps 60 percent of Europe’s population was wiped out.
CULTURAL: Cultural expectations play an important role in fertility rates. In societies where women tend to marry at a relatively young age and large families are the norm, the birthrate can be expected to be higher.
EX: In Afghanistan, where girls often marry before they turn 18, the crude birth rate in 2018 was 37.5. (A CBR of greater than 30 is considered high.)
Family planning—availability and access to contraceptive options—also has an impact on birth rates. Societies that discourage the use of contraception, often due to religious beliefs, tend to have higher birth rates than those that do not.
Education, particularly as it relates to medicine, prenatal care, health care, and nutrition. More information results in fewer infant deaths (a lower IMR), a lower CDR, and greater life expectancy. But this can cause a lower TFR.
The Changing Role Of Women: Changing social, economic, and political roles for women have influenced patterns of fertility. In many core countries, women in previous generations tended to stay home and raise children upon marriage.
Today in those countries, women are more likely to remain in the workplace full-time as they balance parenting and household responsibilities. This also can cause a lower TFR.
Lesson 2.4.2
Thomas Malthus: A demographer who worked and lived in England in the 1700s. Malthus envisioned a bleak future in which only war, famine, and the spread of disease would check the excessive population growth. Malthus’s theory is based on the premise that exponential population growth will outpace the increase in resources, including food supply. The point where the two lines intersect is where the food shortage would begin.
The Demographic Transition Model (DTM): represents the shifts in growth that the world’s populations have undergone—and are still experiencing—over time. It is based on population trends related to birth rate and death rate, (which equals to RNI) and each stage of the model is characterized by the relationship between these two factors.
Stage 1: Birth rates and death rates are high; total population size is low. Ex: No entire country.
Stage 2: Birth rates are high; death rate falls; population grows. Ex: Birth rates are high; death rate falls; population grows.
Stage 3: Birth rates gradually decrease; death rates are low; population growth slows. Ex: Mexico, India, South Africa
Stage 4: Low birth rate; low death rate; constant population / zero population growth, ZPG: zero population growth. Ex: Canada, South Korea, the United States
Stage 5: Low birth rate; low death rate; elderly population; decreasing population. Ex: Japan and Germany.
Epidemiological Transition Model (ETM): Describes changes in fertility, mortality, life expectancy, and population age distribution, largely as the result of changes in causes of death.
Stage 1: Famine-Infectious and parasitic diseases mostly cause human death; animal attacks also cause deaths. Effects: Death rate is high and life expectancy is low.
Stage 2: Receding Pandemic Disease-Improved sanitation, nutrition, and medicine lower spread of infection. Effects: Death rate decreases and life expectancy increases.
Stage 3: Degenerative and Human-Created Diseases-Fewer deaths from infectious disease and increase in diseases related to aging (heart attack/cancer). Effects: Death rate is low and life expectancy increases.
Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases-Medical advances reduce or delay incidences of diseases related to aging. Effects: Life expectancy is at its highest.
Stage 5: Reemergence of Infectious Disease-Infectious and parasitic diseases become resistant to antibiotics and increase. Effects: Life expectancy decreases.
Lesson 2.4.3
Antinatalist Policies: Those designed to curb population growth by discouraging citizens from having children. They are usually a reaction to concerns about population growth exceeding resources. The goal of these policies is to reduce the risk of potential famine or disease due to overuse of natural resources.
EX: India enacted aggressive mandatory sterilization campaigns, mostly targeting men. In many cases, men were sterilized without their consent; in others, the men consented in exchange for land or for not being cited for riding a train without a ticket.
Pronatalist Policies: Encourage births and aim to accelerate population growth. Governments enact pronatalist policies for a variety of reasons, including to address concerns about an aging population. Low birth rates and fertility rates in some countries give rise to concerns about the size of the workforce and its ability to meet future economic needs
EX: Singapore-“Have Three or More if You Can Afford It”: cash bonuses, tax breaks, paid parental leave, subsidized child care.
Lesson 2.4.4
Consequences of Population Increase: Rapid population growth may contribute to insufficient housing stock, crowded schools, difficulties with providing enough food, and inadequate health care services.
Land Degradation: Long-term damage to the soil’s ability to support life.
EX: Soil exhaustion—the depletion of nutrients in soil that has been farmed too long or too intensively—and deforestation caused by communities clearing wooded land for farming, homes, and infrastructure.
Lesson 2.5.1
Migration: The permanent movement of people from one place to another.
Emigration: Movement of people away from a location
Immigration: Movement of people to a location.
Net Migration: The difference between the number of emigrants and immigrants in a location such as a city or a country. (# of Emigrants-# of Immigrants=Net Migration).
Ex: If more people emigrate from Japan than immigrate to Japan, the entire population decreases, creating a negative net migration.
Ex: If fewer people emigrate from France than immigrate to France, the population rises and the net migration is positive.
Mobility: Includes all types of movement from one location to another, whether temporary or permanent or over short or long distances.
Circulation: Temporary, repetitive movements that recur on a regular basis.
Ex: Short distances, like walking a few blocks or riding the bus a few miles to school each day.
Ex: Long-distance movement like the seasonal routines of farm workers or retirees traveling thousands of miles.
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: Ravenstein concluded that economic conditions push and pull people in predictable directions. He also noticed that population size and distance affect migration.
1. Migration is typically over a short distance.
2. Migration occurs in steps, like from a rural area to a nearby city, and then perhaps on to a larger city.
3. Long-distance migrants often move to places of economic opportunity (urban areas).
4. Every migration generates a movement in the opposite direction, or a counter flow (not necessarily of the same number of migrants).
5. People in rural areas migrate more than people in cities.
6. Males migrate over longer distances than females.
7. Most migrants are young adult males.
8. Cities grow more by migration than by natural increase.
9. Migration increases with economic development.
10. Migration is mostly due to economic factors.
Push Factors: A negative cause that compels someone to leave a location.
Ex: Millions who fled the civil war in Rwanda in 1994 that left an estimated one million dead and many more in fear of their lives
Pull Factors: A positive cause that attracts someone to a new location.
Ex: A stable government, safe neighborhoods, and plentiful job opportunities.
Migrants perceive push factors more accurately than pull factors, since they are more familiar with their homeland than their potential destination.
ECONOMIC PUSH & PULL FACTORS: PULL-Stable employment and higher wages are enticing economic pull factors that affect many populations, such as recent college graduates searching for career-starting opportunities and laborers looking for seasonal and permanent work in other countries.
EX: The Bracero Program, initiated in 1942, was created by the U.S. and Mexican governments to recruit much-needed Mexican laborers to replace American agricultural and transportation industry workers who were mobilizing for World War II.
PUSH-Job loss and the lack of employment opportunities force people to look elsewhere for work.
EX: The global recession of 2008 greatly affected migration around the world. Ireland experienced negative net migration correlated with the downturn in its economy.
CULTURAL PUSH FACTORS: PUSH-Push factors involving discrimination, persecution, and political instability resulting from cultural diversity.
EX: In the 1600s, the Pilgrims and Puritans broke from the Church of England and fled to North America to escape religious persecution. Three hundred years later in Turkey, authorities forcibly dispersed Kurdish people to different parts of the country in order to dilute the Kurdish culture.
DEMOGRAPHIC PUSH FACTORS: PUSH-The characteristics of a population such as age, education level, and geographic location. Some people located in rural communities migrate because of lack of access to health care. Rapidly growing population and imbalanced gender ratios also spur migration.
EX: China, which in 2018 had a ratio of 128 boys to 100 girls for children aged 14 and younger. This imbalance between genders and the competition for wives result in men facilitating the migration of brides from Cambodia, Vietnam, or Russia.
POLITICAL PUSH & PULL FACTORS: PULL-The promises of peace and freedom have served as compelling pull factors for countless migrants.
EX: During World War II, millions of people left Europe to escape the Nazi regime and find security in the United States, Canada, Australia, and South America.
PUSH-A weakened economy and another restrictive government continue to push.
EX: In Syria, a civil war has pushed more than 5.6 million Syrians to flee their homeland since 2011.
ENVIRONMENTAL PUSH & PULL FACTORS: PULL- A desirable climate or landscape can pull migrants to certain regions. PUSH-Adverse physical conditions, including intense heat, drought, or substantial flooding.
Climate change contributes to crop failure and water scarcity, intensifies storms, and causes sea levels to rise, displacing people from their homes around the world.
EX: Hurricane Katrina, the storm that battered the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005, displaced hundreds of thousands of people and flooded much of the city of New Orleans.
Lesson 2.5.2
Voluntary Migration: People make the choice to move to a new place.
EX: Push factors such as joblessness or drought might cause them to leave their current home; pull factors like economic opportunity or a mild climate might draw them to a new home.
Forced Migration: People are compelled to move by economic, political, environmental, or cultural factors.
Transnational Migration: Immigrants to a new country retain strong cultural, emotional, and financial ties to their country of origin and may regularly return for visits. In a sense, transnational migrants live in two cultures—and two countries—at once. Often, they send money to help support their families back home.
Internal Migration: Movement within a country’s borders.
Interregional: Movement from one region of the country to another.
Intraregional: Movement within one region of the country.
International Migration: Moving from one country to another.
Sunbelt: Pull Factors: taxes in the Sunbelt were low and land was cheap, which drew businesses and factories to the region, opening many job opportunities. The warm weather was a draw as well, and the invention of affordable, portable air conditioners made the summer’s high heat bearable. South, southwest region of the U.S.
Rustbelt: Push Factors: Companies had left industrial cities in the Northeast and Midwest. Highlights their abandoned factories, deindustrialization, and economic decline.
Transhumance: A form of migration practiced by nomads who move herds between pastures at cooler, higher elevations during the summer and lower elevations during the winter. It is an international migration when nomads cross national borders during their seasonal movements.
Friction of Distance: A concept that states that the longer a journey is, the more time, effort, and cost it will involve.
Chain Migration: Which people move to a location because others from their community have previously migrated there. Immigrants who follow others to a new location usually have similar reasons for leaving their home country, and they have an added pull factor—their way has been eased by those who arrived before.
Step Migration: A series of smaller moves to get to the ultimate destination. Most migrants have limited financial resources that make it necessary to take a long move in smaller steps.
Intervening Obstacles: An occurrence that holds migrants back.
EX: A mountain, no money, climate.
Intervening Opportunities: An occurrence that causes migrants to pause their journey by choice.
EX: A family in India might set out from a farm in rural Bihar intending to migrate to a big city such as New Delhi, but find that they’ve run out of money before they reach their destination and stop to look for work in a village along the way.
Guest Workers: Migrants who travel to a new country as temporary laborers. Guest workers are brought in to work jobs that cannot be filled by citizens of the host country, usually involving manual labor, agricultural work, or work in the service industry.
EX: West Germany needed young workers to fill its factories and mines due to a post-war economic boom. The government brought in millions of Turkish workers to help rebuild the country’s infrastructure.
Circular Migration: When migrant workers move back and forth between their country of origin and the destination country where they work temporary jobs.
EX: The money guest workers earn in the destination countries may have greater purchasing power in their home countries, where prices are lower.
Refugees: Are people who are forced to leave their country for fear of persecution or death.
Asylum: The right to protection, in the new country for a refugee.
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): People who have been forced to flee their homes but remain within their country’s borders. Internally displaced persons include those running from conflict and those evacuating their homes because of a natural disaster.
Human Trafficking: The recruitment, transportation, harboring, or receipt of persons by improper means (such as force, abduction, fraud, or coercion).
Lesson 2.5.3
Repatriate: When a refugee returns to home country.
Today, refugees can seek asylum in 145 countries that were ratified in the 1951 Refugee Convention.
This means that not every country gives asylum and it's granted by either international organizations or the country itself.
Refugees are not just coming from one specific location they're coming from everywhere around the world and not everyone can repatriate back to their home country.
Lesson 2.5.4
Quotas: Limits on the number of immigrants allowed into the country each year.
Kinship Links: A network of relatives and friends that relate to chain migration with family and community ties facilitate successive waves of immigration from a particular area to a new destination.
Center of Population: When a locations population is equal North, South East, and West.
U.S. Center of Population: The US Center population has gone west and more recently South from 1790 until 2020.
Reasons: 1) The Gold Rush (1848-1855)- people went West for the gold to the center drastically changed. 2) The Great Migration (1916-1970)- When African Americans moved to the north due to pull factors like industrial jobs. This impacted the center by taking it to the north but that was short-lived. 3) AC- AC became more affordable in the 1950s so the center moved down south because people could handle the heat with AC.
The Global Center of Population is in India
U.S. WAVES OF MIGRATION-
Wave 1: 1840s-1850s
Western Europe and British Isles
Mostly protestants and spoke English-Widely accepted.
Wave 2: 1870s and 1880s
Scandinavian countries
Norway, Sweden, Finland (kinda…), and Denmark
Protestant and learned English quickly-Accepted but not as quickly as the last ones.
Wave 3: 1890s - 1920
Southern and Eastern Europe
No English, Catholic, and olive skin-Were not as widely accepted.
Wave 4:1950s-Present
Asia and Latin America
Many more restrictions after 9/11
US/Mexico border
2017 restrict on 7 countries with majority Muslim population
U.S. Quota Laws: Acts restricting the amount of immigrants coming into the US from different countries over time.
The Quota Act (1921): Only 3% of immigrants from a country
The National Origins Act (1924): Dropped down to 2% of immigrants from a country
Immigration Act of 1965: Changes to now allow a cap on immigrants categorized by hemispheres.
Current law-
675,000 global
7% from any country
Family reunification, skilled workers, diversity
Lesson 2.5.5
Skill Gaps: A shortage of people trained in a particular industry in a country.
Remittance: Money earned by emigrants abroad and sent back to home countries
Brain Drain: Refers to the loss of trained or educated people to the lure of work in another—often richer—country.
EX: Indian doctors are more drawn to the U.S. than staying in their home country because the US has higher wages so that is the loss of trained people.
Relocation Diffusion: The spread of ideas and culture traits through migration