Chapter 2 - Work in Global Context

Definitions

  • how should work be defined - is compensation necessary? (volunteerism, family caretaking, etc.)

  • job - an activity people do to satisfy basic needs, for instance, to9 pay the bills so that people can support themselves and families for a living. A job requires certain qualifications, or otherwise, the employer would not be satisfied with the performance, so paid employment is the core of job

  • occupation - title given to a type of job that a group of people share. in other words, the nature of the job is similar, the entry requirements are the same, and the occupation can be across different organizations and settings

  • work - an activity people do to satisfy multiple needs of life; can be paid or unpaid, but with a purpose to produce something. David Jepsen (2013) listed three hallmark qualities of work

    • work involves purposeful effort

    • work requires skills and talent

    • work yields a lasting produce

    • from this perspective, work is certainly more than a paid employment although it can be one’s employment

Historical Perspectives: Meaning of Work

  • historical perspectives

    • classification based on title or last name or social class

    • classification based on occupation

    • Christian beliefs and the “Protestant Work Ethic” a Western-European, white ethic value

    • status defining identity

    • 3 aspect of meaning

      • belonging - social network

      • self-concept - who i am

      • sense of worth - making a difference

Cross-Cultural Perspectives - Meaning of Work

  • common across cultures is the idea of work for survival

  • social, economic, and political structures affect the meaning of work- think of Communism vs. Capitalism

  • how important is work in defining identity in other countires/cultures?

  • what is work used for in other countries?

    • income

    • serving the community

    • personal satisfaction

Changing Occupational Structure

  • occupations fading out due to technological trends. what jobs don’t exist anymore that were once thought secure?

  • technology advancement and globalization are the main reasons for occupational structural change

  • the top 10 fastest growing occupations are in new technology (solar photovoltaic, wind turbine service technician),. health care (e.g., personal care aides, home health aide), and data analysis and management (statistician, mathematician) (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017).

  • outsourcing, downsizing, and corporate mergers have created unprecedented challenges for workers, as with the changers come the instability

Changing Workforce

  • the percentage of Asian and Hispanic workers growing uch faster than the average

  • workers of Hispanic origin are expected to make up about 1 out of 5 workers in 2026

  • more workers postponing retirement leading to an agining workforce

  • managing generational differences, particularly “millennials”

  • flexible work hours and geographic locations due to technology

  • changes in demand of the work such as memory, typing, or mechanical ability

Work and Physical Health

  • the high demand for efficiency and productivity in work settings in the 21st century means that everyone needs to be held accountable for achieving efficiency and productivity

  • long hours, working, multiple jobs, increased cost of living

  • less time to take care of one’s other needs, for example, sleep time, interaction time with family and friends, and leisure activities

  • unemployment or underemployment also harmful to physical health such as the interruption of steady income, loss of health insurance through the employer, financial security, sense of identity, and connection to others

  • cardiovascular disease and digestive ulcers were commonly found among people who have job-related stress of job misfit

  • stress of negative feelings could impact physical health

  • job-related responsibilities could increase risk factors such as manual labor wearing down the physical body

Work and Mental Health

  • the relationship between mental health and employment status is reciprocal, meaning mental health issues can be risk factors for unemployment but can also be the consequences of unemployment or underemployment

  • loss of jobs or inadequate employment resulted in depression, anxiety, and increased drinking and drug abuse

  • people with full-time employment have lower levels of stress and depressive symptoms, healthier eating habits, exercised more, and consumed less alcohol or cigarettes

  • psychological well-being is more strongly related to work performance than physical health “happy workers are more productive”

  • poor psychological health leads to cognitive deficits - for example, memory problems, learning, and executive functioning which are all required at work

Job Satisfaction and Job Stress

  • workers’ health, if compromised, leads to more absence from work, then to low productivity, and also higher costs of health insurance (WHO, n.d.). On the other hand, happy and satisfied workers can be not only productive but also creative and then generate more positive outcomes for themselves and their employers

  • risk factors or work

    • work characteristics

      • demands of attention, effort, hours, and emotional investment

    • work environment

      • organization support - clear structure, expectations, and feedback

      • interpersonal relationships - coworkers, supervisors/supervisees

  • 2 theoretical models for addressing workplace stress

    • Karasek’s Demand-Control-Support Model

    • Siegrist’s Effort-Reward Imbalance Model

Organizations to Address Job Stress

  • National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), as a section within Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): address occupational stress and hazards

  • Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs): prevention and intervention programs at the workplace to help both employees and employers identify and resolve personal concerns

Personal Factors in Career Development

  • genetics

    • gender, race, ethnicity, and sexual/affectional orientation; physiological and phenotypical features; sensibility, motor skills, and disability categories and status

    • some occupations require such specific physical prowess that only certain people with innate talents can succeed (pro sports, musical talent, etc)

  • psychological characteristics

    • ability to meet the needs, outcomes, and values one expects of work

    • aptitude, interests, personality, and values

    • a very shy person probably will not choose sales as an occupation, just as an extroverted individual cannot imagine working all day alone in a cubicle without any human interaction

  • personal resources

    • socioeconomic status, the sociocultural and socioeconomic backgrounds of the family, access to education and training, and the social network of individuals and their families

Contextual Factors in Career Development

  • work requirements

    • basic skills such as reading and writing, minimum skills in using computer and online communication (e.g., e-mail, online posting)

    • specialized training and/or education; physical or cognitive abilities

    • type of work: outdoor versus indoor work, a routine time schedule versus a changing every day schedule, or working with machines versus working with people

  • sociocultural influence

    • job status has values ascribed by society; change the society and values change

    • people typically choose an occupation that they feel is acceptable to their perceived self-identification in social status, including prestige level, gender role, and ethnic group

  • socioeconomic influence

    • the labor market is a significant factor because people cannot enter the workforce if the demand for new owrkers is nonexistent, or people’s careers are interrupted if their positions are cut

    • significant events could impact the supply and demand → COVID - need for nurses & home health aides; production of devices; etc.

Integration - Work and Family

  • reciprocal relationship; a happy family life could be helpful to satisfying and productive work; and fulfilling and satisfying work could result in a happy family life and quality relationships

  • better coordination of the conflict between family and work demand, such as work hours, schedule conflicts, spouse career, change in family structure, fatigue and irritability, can lead to high productivity

  • people who have supportive families and who have helped with the household chores and who are able to obtain appropriate childcare tend to be more satisfied with their jobs

  • more dissatisfaction occurred when there was too much work that overflowed into home life, than when the balance was weighted with more family involvement that might influence work life

Integration - Work and Life Roles

  • changes in the labor force lead to changes of labor division at home (i.e. women working outside of the home)

  • role overload, role conflict, and career-family conflict is the reality and challenge

  • role overload means that one has more responsibilities and duties than time and management resources an individual has

  • role conflict is competing demands from different roles

  • compared to other industrialized countries, the US has the least favorable work environment and policy for working families

  • suggested accommodations for making organizations more family friendly include emergency care, onsite childcare, flexible work arrangements and schedule, and childcare benefits

Integration - Transitions

  • chronic job insecurity, corporate restructuring, and discomfort associated with different role designations at work and home than tradition roles are reality; however, rules and practices are not catching up

  • counselors need to help clients develop life span transitioning

  • transition types:

    • voluntary - driven by personal goals; able to be planned for

    • involuntary - driven by situational or environmental constraints; no time to plan

  • due to economic changes, the school-to-work transition often takes longer for youth nowadays than it did for their parents or grandparents

  • counselors should help individuals build capacities, including higher adaptability and self-awareness to prepare for transitions, and also that institutions need proactive programming for youth and adults to make voluntary transitions

Integrated Services

  • helping clients with career concerns includes using a framework that integrates personal and contextual factors to explore self-identity, and meaning of life, as well as making a living

  • counselors are in the unique position among all the helping professionals to be able to provide integrated services to clients because counselors are the only helping professionals who are trained to understand both career and mental health issues required by the training standards within the professional organization and accreditation standards

  • to promote integrated services

    • foster a sense of enthusiasm about career counseling

    • help students to understand that work influences clients’ lives

    • do more research about the interrelationship and outcome with and without integration

    • provide professional development opportunities for developing the knowledge and skills in comprehensive counseling services

Ecological Perspective of Career Counseling

  • change agency of individuals

    • address the instability of the work environment in the 21st century

    • enhance flexicurity, flexibility and security, particularly for those who are at risk of being in and out of jobs because of lack of resources

    • encourage lifelong learning and to be aware of the resources and assets as well as barriers in the ecosystem

    • help policy makers endorse and implement policies to facilitate prevention and intervention programs targeting development of attitudes and skills for lifelong learning

  • meaning making in changing environment

    • counselors need to empower clients to find their own voices and meaningful connection to the outside world and to thrive beyond survival

    • identify a niche in this dynamic and diverse world