canada

History 104: Toward Canada's Century

The West after 1880

• The Canadian government’s colonization plans for Western Canada, particularly in the Prairies, proceeded at a slow pace during the 1870s.

• With the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) restarting after 1880, colonization efforts significantly accelerated.

• Additionally, American pacification campaigns on the Great Plains indirectly affected Canada's expansion and colonization initiatives.

The Changing Prairie Economy

• Post-1880, the Plains bison, which formed the basis of the traditional Métis and Prairie First Nations economy, disappeared rapidly.

• The bison's decline led to severe famine among Indigenous peoples.

• This environmental shift prompted rapid agreements to treaties and attempts by Indigenous groups to adapt to a new ecological reality.

The Métis from Red River to 1885

• The Métis resistance at Red River during 1869-70 compelled the Canadian government to designate Manitoba as a separate province with a majority Métis population.

• Between 1878 and 1887, John Norquay, a Métis politician, served as the Premier of Manitoba.

• However, an influx of migration from Ontario, Quebec, and overseas led to the Métis becoming a minority by the 1880s.

• This demographic change prompted many Métis to migrate westward to the valley of the Saskatchewan River.

1885 Northwest Resistance/Rebellion

• Following Canada’s westward expansion, issues such as corruption in the CPR and massive profits for promoters and politicians were prevalent.

• The Métis, having fled westward and settled along the Saskatchewan River Valleys, grew increasingly disgruntled and anticipated new waves of land theft.

• Other settlers voiced similar complaints, contributing to a climate of unrest.

• Corruption within the territorial government further fueled discontent among the populace.

• A decision was made to invite Louis Riel, previously exiled after the Red River rebellion, to lead a new uprising demanding rights similar to those previously secured.

Riel in 1885

• Louis Riel was no longer the promising young lawyer he once was; he had become bitter and experienced nervous breakdowns.

• Riel claimed to have visions about establishing a new world order centered in North America as the political and religious authority.

• He believed he was destined to lead his people to freedom, reflecting broader social transformation trends of the time.

Riel’s Tactics in 1885

• Riel attempted to replicate tactics employed during the Red River resistance: public meetings to garner support.

• He declared a Provisional Government and demanded negotiations from the Canadian government, ensuring he did not renounce allegiance to the Crown.

• Riel rallied an armed force of Métis at Batoche to assert his authority and challenge the Northwest Mounted Police (NWMP), the primary governmental force in the region.

First Nations

• First Nations had their grievances against the Canadian government, including:

  • Deceit and falsehood surrounding treaty negotiations.

  • Refusal to allow large, contiguous reserves for their communities.

  • Insufficient agricultural training provided by the government.

• The government was notably slow in fulfilling even minimal responsibilities outlined in treaties.

First Nations and Resistance

• When Riel announced the provisional government and Métis took up arms, most First Nations chose to remain neutral.

• This neutrality was beneficial to the Government, as First Nations represented the majority of the population and armed forces on the Prairies.

• Only a segment of the Cree bands led by Poundmaker and Big Bear engaged in actions against the government, and even then, there was little coordinated effort.

Frog Lake Incident

• A faction of Big Bear's Cree attacked the settlement at Frog Lake, west of Batoche.

• They killed resident priests, settlers, and Métis and took hostages, including women and one European man.

• Big Bear, despite being the leader, opposed the attack and sought to protect the hostages.

• The Frog Lake incident, along with an attack on Battleford by Poundmaker’s Cree, seriously alarmed the Canadian government.

Government Response

• In response, the government hastily deployed troops over the nearly completed CPR infrastructure.

• The Canadian militia, commanded by British General A. Middleton and a small staff, prepared to suppress the rebellion.

• European settlers largely distanced themselves from the Métis cause once it became evident that violence would ensue.

North West Force

• General Middleton led the main force overland from the CPR line towards Metis positions at Batoche.

• Additional columns under Generals Strange and Otter advanced towards Battleford and Duck Lake to confront Poundmaker and Big Bear’s Cree.

Battle of Batoche

• The armed conflict culminated in the Battle of Batoche, where the Métis were defeated.

• Following this, Cree leaders were captured, leading to a rapid expansion of settlement frontiers westward.

Aftermath

• Following his capture, Louis Riel was executed, which caused outrage in French Canada and nearly shattered the governing coalition at the time.

• The Métis received relatively fair treatment afterwards, even compensated for some damaged properties, but their lifestyle, characterized by mixed subsistence agriculture and hunting, faced further marginalization.

• In contrast, First Nations suffered gravely; leaders such as Big Bear and Poundmaker were imprisoned and humiliated, despite efforts to prevent attacks on civilians from their men.

First Nations Assimilation Policies

• The Canadian government aimed to assimilate First Nations in Western Canada, viewing them as a new population to be integrated into Canadian society.

• First Nations were forcibly relocated onto small, isolated reserves.

• The government discouraged the use of Indigenous languages and cultural practices among the First Nations.

• Prime Minister MacDonald sought to enfranchise First Nations, granting them voting rights, but encountered opposition from within his own party.

Movement Control Measures

• In the aftermath of the Northwest Rebellion, the government established a pass system specifically for the Canadian Prairies.

• All First Nations members were confined to their reserves and required written permission from an Indian Agent to leave their land, visit families on other reserves, or travel.

• This system persisted until 1945 when pass books were recalled and destroyed, and records of the system were eliminated.

Indian Residential Schools

• Indian Residential Schools became the predominant tool for assimilation and increased in number following the Northwest Resistance.

• Children as young as five were forcibly removed from their families to attend boarding schools operated by religious organizations until the age of sixteen.

• These children faced maltreatment, malnutrition, and were prohibited from speaking their languages.

• They were often vulnerable to epidemic diseases due to their living conditions.

Long-Term Impacts of Residential Schools

• The schools operated for over a century, with the last one closing in 1996.

• Indian Residential Schools caused irreparable harm to First Nations societies and cultures, with a legacy of trauma that still affects communities today.

• The federal government has been compelled to offer reparations and issue formal apologies to the affected communities.

Settlement of the West

• Settlement of the West progressed slowly under Conservative governance, partly due to a worldwide economic downturn.

• The death of Prime Minister Macdonald in 1892 left the Conservatives with uninspiring successors.

Settlement and Political Landscape

• John Sparrow Thompson, MacDonald's successor, died of a heart attack after being honored with tea by the Queen at Windsor Castle.

• MacKenzie Bowell, Thompson's successor, was associated with the Orange Order—a group noted for anti-Catholic, anti-French, and anti-First Nations sentiments, as well as anti-ethnic minority attitudes.

• Bowell's attempts to address the Manitoba Schools Controversy—where the Manitoba government aimed to eliminate constitutional protections for French education and language—led to significant political backlash.

Conservative Collapse

• Bowell opposed changes to the educational protections on constitutional grounds, yet he remained viewed with suspicion in Quebec.

• Resulting from internal and external pressures—corruption in Western Canada and his stances during the Schools Controversy—Bowell lost support and was eventually ousted from leadership.

• His successor, Sir Charles Tupper, was elderly, uncharismatic, and generally disliked, leading to the Conservatives' defeat in the 1895 elections.

Wilfrid Laurier

• Wilfrid Laurier, a champion of compromise and often opposed by church institutions, became Prime Minister following the Conservatives' decline.

• He recognized the importance of protecting ethnic minorities, predominantly the French Canadian population.

• Laurier presided over one of Canada's first substantial economic booms in the post-Confederation era.

Rhetoric

• Laurier asserted, "Let me tell you, my fellow countrymen, that all the signs point this way: the 20th century shall be the century of Canada and Canadian development.”

• He was renowned for his rhetorical prowess and held an optimistic vision for Canada’s future.

• Laurier was the first Prime Minister to use the phrase “sunny ways” to characterize his political approach, emphasizing persuasion and compromise over coercion.

Immigration Reform

• The 1895 election led to Laurier and the Liberals assuming power.

• New Interior Minister Clifford Sifton, who hailed from Western Canada, believed that prioritizing British subjects for immigration was not prudent.

• Sifton advocated for an environmentally-based immigration policy aimed at attracting individuals from regions with climates similar to the Prairies, such as Russia, US Plains, and the Middle East, specifically to enhance settler populations in Western Canada.

Canada’s Century

• Alongside the burgeoning global economy, the shift in immigration policies contributed to a significant surge in immigration in the West.

• This influx created a market for Canadian products—including wheat, beef, coal, and iron—and provided a diverse population eager to escape dire circumstances.

• The changing demographic landscape incorporated various ethnicities, such as Jews, Russians, Mennonites, Poles, Ukrainians, and Arabs, enriching Canada’s multicultural identity.

Boom Years

• From 1895 to 1914, Canada experienced robust economic prosperity characterized by extensive development.

• New railways and shipping routes enabled a dramatically increasing population.

• Cities transformed, with Vancouver evolving from a rudimentary settlement into a modern metropolis; Toronto emerged as a dominant force in Ontario and the West; and Winnipeg grew significantly, alongside burgeoning cities like Edmonton, Calgary, and Saskatoon.

Growth in Canadian Confidence

• Under the leadership of the Laurier Liberals, Canadians began to view Canada as more than merely a colony of Britain.

• There were serious proposals advocating for the relocation of Imperial institutions to Canada, even discussions about Canada becoming the center of the British Empire.

• A growing contingent of Canadian politicians and opinion-makers increasingly pressed for Canada to assume a more consequential role on the global stage.