Motor Learning & Coaching Notes
Transfer of Learning
Definition: The influence past experiences have on the learning/performance of a new experience/skill.
Factors Contributing to Transfer of Learning:
Physical Skills: Similarity in physical skills between two sports leads to a greater transfer. Example: Serving in volleyball and throwing a cricket ball.
Cognitive Skills: Skills requiring similar cognitive processing transfer well. Example: Fast decision-making in a confined space transferring between sports.
Categories of Transfer of Learning
There is a transfer between sports where there is a similarity in tactics and strategies e.g., field sports such as hockey and soccer have the same number of players, the same aim, similar strategies etc.
After the early years of childhood, people rarely learn a new skill entirely from scratch.
New patterns of movement are transferred or arise from previous experiences.
In primary school, the emphasis should be on very basic fundamental movement skills (FMS).
This forms the basis for more complex motor programmes that are acquired later, e.g. hopping is the basis for side stepping in AFL
Without FMS, more specific motor skills can not be developed
Other FMS are running, throwing, balancing and catching, which transfer positively to countless other skills
Children develop a pool of experience or movement patterns, which transfer later into more difficult motor programmes.
1. Skill to Skill
When a skill previously developed in one sport influences learning a skill in another sport, it occurs because of similar mechanics or technical aspects between the two skills.
The influence can be positive (previous skill makes the learning of new skill easier).
The influence can be negative (previous skill makes the learning of the new skill harder).
2. Theory to Practice
The transfer of theoretical skills into practice or performance scenarios.
For example, a coach explains why golf clubs produce different angles, and the player then practices with different clubs, understanding why each club hits a certain distance.
A coach explains game plans, tactics and strategies for opposing teams and individual players; then players practice the identified tactics and strategies.
This can also include developing specific strategies to deal with various game-specific scenarios, for example, the team is 1 score down, 10 minutes left to play in a “must-win” game. Before the situation arises, players are aware of their responsibilities when the strategy is implemented.
3. Training to Competition
Refers to the transfer of skills developed at training into a competition situation.
Coaches must plan and implement training sessions that replicate the demands of the game and, specifically, the development of appropriate skills and energy systems.
Players should be exposed to game-specific situations at training to allow them to develop their information-processing and decision-making mechanisms.
Training should replicate the same conditions regarding time, space, intensity, and pressure as the players will experience during a game, increasing the likelihood of players making the correct decisions under game pressure.
Correct decision-making is critical to successful performance and must be developed using game-like drills and simulations at training.
Training intensity must replicate match intensity unless in the learning phase of the skill.
Effects of Transfer of Learning
Definition of transfer of learning
Categories of transfer of learning
Skill to skill
Theory to practice
Training to competition
Effects of transfer of learning on skill execution and movement efficiency
Positive
Negative
Zero effects
1. Positive Transfer of Learning
Occurs where a skill gained in one sport helps/benefits/assists the performance of a skill in another sport.
The two skills are often similar in some way. E.g. tackling in AFL and tackling in Rugby
Coaches can aid this positive transfer by ensuring the individual understands the similarities between the two skills and by making sure the basics of the first skill are learnt so that they transfer more easily into the second skill.
Example: A tennis player using their knowledge of a serve to help them learn the overarm serve in volleyball.
2. Negative Transfer of Learning
It occurs when a skill developed in one sport inhibits/hinders the performance of a skill in another sport.
The skills can seemingly have a similar action, but there are critical differences in technique, e.g. squash and tennis are both racquet sports but with critical differences
Shot-making in squash involves wrist movement
Shot-making in tennis does not involve wrist movement
A squash player learning to play tennis might have difficulty eliminating wrist movement when playing a tennis shot, which would negatively affect performance. It is important to identify which aspects of the sports contain negative transfer, as there may be positive transfer in other areas. I.e. hand-eye coordination in tennis would positively transfer to badminton.
3. Zero Transfer of Learning
Occurs where a skill developed in one sport has no impact on learning a new skill.
There is no transfer of learning between golf and football, as the skills are completely unrelated both physically and cognitively.
Michael Jordan, with 3 NBA titles with the Chicago Bulls, switched to the Chicago White Sox baseball team.
It was expected that such a superb athlete could switch from one sport to the other, but he had limited success as a baseballer, as there were few similarities in the physical skills or cognitive processing needed between the two sports.
After an unsuccessful season with the White Sox, Jordan returned to the Bulls and won another 3 NBA titles.
Key Considerations
Questions relating to transfer of learning often require you to discuss either the categories of transfer, the effects of transfer of learning or both.
Many candidates mix up the transfer categories and effects of transfer of learning.
Leadership Styles
Use of different leadership styles – democratic, authoritarian (autocratic) and laissez-faire (casual) to suit audience needs.
Coaches use different leadership styles to get their message across to the players.
The leadership style used is influenced by;
The personality of the coach
The motivation of the performer
The phase of the season
The experience of the players
The specific situation the coach is in
1. Authoritarian (Autocratic) Leadership
The coach makes all the decisions, and the players merely do what they are told.
Very strict style of coaching
The coach believes he has the knowledge and experience to impart to the players
Less confident players are intimidated
Effective when the team is winning
Less effective if the team is losing
Characteristics
Intense energy
Well organised
Demands attention to detail by the players
Punish those who make mistakes
Confrontational when challenged
Suits:
Athletes who need direction and focus
Athletes who value extrinsic motivation
Young/inexperienced athletes learning the game as it provides them with clear direction
When safety is a concern and strong discipline is required - i.e. various gymnastics/cheerleading activities
When there is little time available, and direction is required immediately
Does not suit:
Athletes who want to have input into decision-making
Athletes who want to do their own thing - cannot follow a game plan
Athletes who have an opinion
2. Democratic Leadership
Where the coach involves the players in the decision-making.
Maintains open communication with players
Players feel they have a degree of ownership of the team
Positive and negative feedback are used to reinforce and promote learning
It is very good for experienced players who have a strong knowledge of the sport and can provide input themselves
Enjoyment is important
Liked by players
Characteristics:
It tends to be very flexible
Strives to create an atmosphere of mutual respect
Concerned for the welfare of the players
Suits:
Experienced athletes who want input into decision-making
Intrinsically motivated athletes
Athletes who want to create their own solutions to problems
When there is plenty of time available for decisions to be made
Does not suit:
Athletes who need direction
Athletes who are intensely focused and do not want input from other team members
3. Laissez-faire (Casual) Leadership
The coach makes few decisions, allowing players to take ownership and make the decisions.
Relaxed and easy going who establishes an informal learning environment
There is no pressure on the players to perform
Tends to be less organised and prepared
Works best with experienced players who can make their own decisions
Offers guidance and advice when asked
Characteristics:
Provides little instruction and minimal guidance in organising activities
It creates a relaxed atmosphere, but there’s a lack of general direction
The coach exerts little influence on the players
Suits:
Athletes who value socialisation and participation
Intrinsically motivated athletes
Athletes who only need advice before they make the final decision
Experienced athletes allow for creativity e.g. strategies, game plans
A coach who wants to develop players’ problem-solving capacity by allowing them to work out strategies in mini-games/drills.
Does not suit:
Athletes who want to learn, improve performance and win
Athletes who value extrinsic motivation
Inexperienced players who are unsure of what to do
Adapting Leadership Styles
Coaches can change their leadership styles depending on the team's needs, their situation, and the season’s stage.
Laissez-faire (casual) leadership
This coaching style can be used briefly in the PRE – SEASON to see who “steps – up” and which players show leadership traits. It may also be used to develop problem-solving capacity by allowing players to work out strategies in mini-games/drills
Authoritarian (autocratic) leadership
This coaching style can be used in the PRE – SEASON phase as the coach establishes authority and control over the group.
Democratic leadership
This style can be used during the IN – SEASON and FINALS as it incorporates the team in decision making, but the coach has the final say.
Coaching/Training Activities
Design coaching/training activities to improve performance in selected skills, including shaping, chaining, static-dynamic
The basic process of teaching/coaching a skill is a 4- step process
Introduce the skill to be learned
Get athletes attention
Make sure they can all see and hear
Explain the name of the skill and how/when it is used
Demonstrate and explain the skill
Demonstrate the skill to the athletes
Point out 2 or 3 key points of technique required for successful performance
Check the group understands what is required by asking questions of them
Practice the skill
Begin practicing the skill as soon as possible after the demonstration
Practice should be fun and motivating
Needs to be appropriate to skill level of the group.
Correct errors/provide feedback
Learners are provided with feedback about their performance
Learners practice some more and try to incorporate the feedback received.
Coaches will use a range of coaching/training activities to improve performance in selected skills. These include the following:
Shaping
Chaining
Static to dynamic
1. Shaping
Learn a simplified or incomplete version of the skill and add the missing parts as the skill is developed.
Coach demonstrates the skill.
Performer practices simplified version.
Feedback/correction provided.
Add “missing” components.
Further practice - increase speed/accuracy
Add “missing” components
Use skill in game/competition-like situations
Shaping is suitable for complex skills which have simultaneous elements
Coaching Hurdles Using Shaping
Athlete runs over 5-10 cones set apart at a distance that allows the learner to take 3 strides between cones
Replace cones with low, lightweight hurdles that offer no resistance when hit
Gradually increase the height of hurdles to competition height with minimal toppling weight
Gradually increase the toppling weight and spacing between hurdles to competition standards.
The coach provides feedback and adjusts the technique during the progressions.
2. Chaining
It involves breaking the skill down into its component parts and then sequentially learning each component part one at a time.
Break the skill down into component parts
Start by teaching the first part - practice until it is perfect
Add next part – practice until perfect
Add next part
Add next part, etc.
No progression until the previous part is perfect
Chaining is suitable for teaching skills which have sequential parts
Forward Chaining
Components of the skill are rehearsed in the order that the whole skill is performed (for example, starting with the first component of the skill)
Forward chaining the triple jump
Teach the run-up
When the run-up is correct, add the hop
When run up and hop are correct, add the step
When run up, hop and step are correct, add the jump
Backward Chaining
Practiced with the last component first, and the whole skill is built by working backwards
Backward chaining volleyball spike;
Hit the ball off the partner’s hand
Hit ball thrown up by the partner
Hit ball thrown by the partner using a short run-up
Hit the ball thrown by the partner using a longer run-up
Task Complexity and Organisation
The complexity of a skill is determined by:
The number of component parts involved in the skill
The amount of information processing required to perform the skill
How much accuracy is required
How quickly the task must be performed.
Depending on task complexity and task organization, coaches will use a range of teaching/coaching methods
Influenced by 2 factors:
Task Complexity - The number of skills required to complete the task.
Task Organization - How dependent each phase of the skill is dependent on the previous phase?
Skills that have high task complexity and low organization are best taught using chaining e.g., gymnastics routine
Skills that are high in task organization but low in complexity are best taught using shaping e.g., triple jump
When to use chaining/shaping?
3. Static to Dynamic
Involves the player starting with drills involving limited movement and progressing to drills involving movement and additional tasks.
Static skills
Involves limited movement
Predictable (closed) environment
Limited cues – can concentrate on technique
Beneficial for learners
e.g. water polo players passing the ball across the pool to one another
Dynamic skills
Performer is moving
Less predictable (open) environment
Increased number of cues – requires increased decision-making
Beneficial for extending skill development
e.g. water polo players passing the ball in a game-specific environment
Movement Analysis
Use of the Knudson and Morrison model through the application of the preparation, observation, evaluation, intervention and re-observation of tasks to improve performance
Coaches analyze the performance of an athlete to determine;
What the athlete is doing right
What the athlete is doing wrong and limits performance
What key aspects of the performance need attention
What training activities are needed to rectify faults
To track the athlete’s progress
The coach and athlete use the information gathered to improve future performance.
Contexts for analyzing technique
Performance is analyzed in laboratory conditions to vary or manipulate various factors.
Computerized analysis can be used.
Cameras allow for better observation.
An athlete’s performance is analyzed at training in normal surroundings, e.g., the underwater observation of the “pull phase” in a swimming stroke can be observed during a training session.
An athlete is analyzed while performing during competition. All 3 methods of analysis have their own strengths and weaknesses.
Methods of analyzing sports skills
1. Quantitative analysis
Uses numbers - body skin folds, blood lactate levels, angle and speed of release, instantaneous velocity, acceleration rate, etc.
Quantitative analysis is objective (based on fact e.g., Meadows ran 1min 58.6 sec)
Achieved using objective measurements.
Analysis using numbers e.g.;
Metres (distance)
Seconds (time)
Metres / second (speed)
2. Qualitative analysis
Refers to a description/analysis of the movement without using numbers.
A systematic approach to qualitative analysis is the Knudsen – Morrison Model of skill analysis
A 5-stage process aimed at analyzing, then improving, performance.
Qualitative analysis is subjective (based on the opinion of the observer)
Achieved by observation and is subjective.
Good
Short
Poor
Heavy
Knudsen-Morrison Model of Qualitative Analysis
The Knudsen-Morrison Model is a process that must be completed in order. Each stage has a specific goal.
Preparation stage
Observation stage
Evaluation stage
Intervention stage
Re - observation stage
It’s also known as a Motion analysis model or a method of qualitative analysis
Stages of the Knudsen-Morrison Model
1. Preparation Phase
Coach is concerned with developing a prerequisite knowledge base about the skill OR Coach gathers relevant knowledge about the activity and the performer, then selects an observational strategy.
The coach must know the points of technique required to produce the skill correctly.
A checklist could be made up outlining key points of technique before analysis.
Includes all movements that prepare the athlete for the performance of the skill
Includes grip, run-up, stance, backswing
It begins when preparation ends and finishes at the point of contact/release of the ball
Refers to all movements after the execution
2. Observation Phase
Involves the systematic gathering of information about the performance or movement.
Decide on the best way to observe and gather information about the skill;
What is the best angle/method to observe the skill – front on, side on or from behind – all provide different performance perspectives?
Direct observation or video?
How many times do you observe?
Observe/record several trials to get more accurate results and record results on the checklist
How close to the subject are you going to be? This is influenced by what you are looking for e.g., court movement vs. technique
3. Evaluation Phase
Identify the strengths and weaknesses of the performer, prioritise in order of importance for correction and identify methods which can be used to improve performance.
Mark off on the checklist what the performer is doing correctly, incorrectly or not at all.
List the weaknesses in order of priority for correction;
Critical - performance inhibiting or contributing to injury - requires immediate attention
Less critical - less impact on performance - work on over a period
Determine methods that can be used to rectify identified weaknesses
Large changes to technique need a longer time to rectify and may be done during the off (transition) season.
Technical flaws which do not impact performance may not always be addressed.
A coach must be aware of the “cause-effect relationship” when evaluating performance. Analyse the process that has resulted in the outcome.
This cover drive has gone in the air and has been caught.
The evaluation of the shot requires a coach to determine the cause.
Without recognizing the cause, the problem will repeat.
The coach would analyze;
Foot position
Point of contact in relation to body
Grip etc.
This drive has been sliced.
The cause of this slice needs to be identified so it can be rectified. The coach would analyze;
Club head path
The angle of the club head at impact
Hand/wrist movement, follow through etc.
4. Intervention Phase
It involves providing feedback and corrections to the performer, usually under practice conditions, to improve performance.
The coach explains what errors are occurring and why and describes what drills/activities should be done to address these identified problems.
Beginners / unskilled performers
Have little idea of what the movement should feel like or how to self-correct errors.
Need large amounts of external augmented feedback
Advanced performers
They can often detect and correct their errors from their own intrinsic and kinesthetic feedback
Require less augmented feedback.
5. Re-Observation Phase
Observe the performer in a similar context to the initial observation phase to see if the changes implemented have improved performance.
Did they make a difference and improve performance, or is further intervention needed?
Learning and Skill Development
Learning and skill development in relation to correction and improvement of self and others
use of video analysis
checklists
peer/mentor/coach feedback
questionnaire
Role of Reflection
Increasing the optimal performance level of an athlete requires the athlete or coach to;
Gather information about each performance
Identify the strengths and weaknesses of that performance
Determine what factors limited the performance.
Once this analysis has been done, the athlete and coach determine what actions must be taken to improve future performances. The intention is to guide the athlete from their current performance to their ideal level of performance.
This method of self-analysis and planning for improvement is called Reflective learning.
4-Stage Reflective Learning Model
A reflective learner recognizes the importance of looking back on past experiences to improve future performances.
A reflective learner solves problems through self-evaluation and reflection. Reflective learning is only meaningful when the athlete can use it to make change.
Reflection
The athlete/coach reflect on the action to;
Evaluate performance
Recognize strengths and weaknesses
Identify factors that limited performance
Recognition of areas to improve
Athlete compares their performance against that of an elite player and determines areas in which they must improve.
As a result of self-reflection, an athlete can determine what aspects of the performance could be improved to enhance future performances.
Gathering performance data, then recognizing things to improve, has become more accurate with the latest technology.
Tennis players can use information gained from statistics and technology about the placement of their serves and statistics about the effectiveness of their serve:
Golfers use laser range finders and global positioning systems to determine the length and accuracy of their shots.
Golfers also analyse statistics regarding:
How many putts they had?
How many fairways were hit off the tee?
How many greens were hit in regulation?
A deficiency in any area needs to be recognized, and then plans/actions taken to improve the skill deficiency.
Planning for improvement
Coaches/athletes need to be up to date with innovations in
Training methods
Game technique/strategy
By being aware of the latest trends, the coach and athlete can incorporate them into training
Most sports are constantly evolving with changes in strategies, tactics, techniques and training methods.
It is important that players and coaches are aware of, and can implement, the latest advancements in their sport. If they do not, they will not perform optimally, as they will be using outdated methods.
Action
The athlete competes in a game, tournament, etc.
Athlete attempts to rectify areas previously identified as limiting performance. Improving identified deficiencies can be short term goals.
Action is the product of the reflective process e.g.; the batter implements their strategies of extra training against the type of bowler that has been dismissing them
Having identified weaknesses, the athlete sets short-term goals to address the areas identified as needing attention. Achieving these short-term goals will motivate the athlete, improve performance and ultimately assist in achieving long-term goals.
Methods for Reflection and Learning
Peer/mentor/coach feedback
Video analysis
Questionnaires
Checklists
1. Video Analysis
A way of providing visual feedback to the performer. Video analysis can slow movement to 500 frames per second for more accurate analysis. A performer can observe their performance broken down into fractions of a second, allowing them to observe the strengths and weaknesses of their performance.
Many athletes respond better to visual feedback than verbal. A combination of both is ideal.
How to Use Video to Analyze Technique
1. Film the game/training session
2. Replay for analysis/review, identify errors/compare to ideal performance/compare to previous performance
3. Give feedback
4. Implement strategy for correction at training
Benefits of Video Analysis
A player's performance can be compared side by side against an exemplar.
The coach can replay the video footage many times if anything was missed on the first viewing.
Track progress – the footage can be stored and referred to, to help measure improvement.
Video can be zoomed in to pick up on greater detail.
Video can be slowed down frame by frame, making it easier to notice errors.
Fewer trials are required to make an analysis accurately, making the process more efficient and less time-consuming.
More than one athlete can be filmed in one shot, making the process more efficient.
Players learn faster because they can be shown where they need to improve.
Coaches can see and correct injury-prone behaviours, teaching new techniques to correct bad habits.
It is a form of visual feedback for the athlete.
The positioning of the recording device determines what information can be obtained - the side on image provides different feedback compared with the front on image.
2. Checklists
A performance record in relation to predetermined criteria - is a form of written feedback.
Checklists can be used to determine the technical and tactical ability of performers by using the following process;
A checklist is made up of identifying the key criteria for successful performance.
The athlete performs the skill, and an observer on the checklist records information about the performance.
Player and coach use the information gathered from the checklist to identify areas of strength and weakness, which then allows them to plan for improvement
3. Peer/Mentor/Coach Feedback
A significant other in the athlete's life, the mentor provides critical and constructive feedback to help the performer continue to improve.
Young players often relate better to a mentor than the coach, e.g., a young player may prefer to discuss problems with a senior player rather than a coach.
4. Questionnaires
Given to players to gather information about individual players, the leadership group, potential leaders and the coaching staff.
It can be used to identify individual athletes’ strengths and weaknesses as well as team strengths and weaknesses
Feedback from the questionnaires can then be used to make changes if required and to guide the development of the team, the individual players and its leaders
Key Concepts to Remember
Reflective learning is a 4-stage process;
Reflection
Recognizing deficiencies and areas that need improvement
Planning how to improve
Action - implement the plan
Students often mix these 2 up!